Penetration paths harmful substances.

1. Affected substances can penetrate the body through the respiratory organs, gastrointestinal, Skin. The most dangerous path of penetration of harmful substances in the body -

1. Through the respiratory organs (inhalation path), because Harmful substances are immediately absorbed by the respiratory tract.
2. The perch of harmful substances through the digestive tract in food, smoking, with drinking water is less dangerous, because Harmful substances partially pass the intestine without lingering, partially neutralized in the liver and stand out.
3. Accessive toxic substances into the body through the skin plays a significant role, although intact skin of impermeable for many toxic substances. Well penetrate the skin aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons - benzene, xylene, toluene, dichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, some organic compounds of metals: tetraethylsvinets, ethyl mercurride, cyanides, etc.

4.Inject

Absorption through the respiratory tract - The main way of receipt of harmful substances into the human body in production. Inhalation poisonings are characterized by the fastest flow of poison in blood.

2 Measures for the prevention of infectious diseases.

In order for the human body to be immune to infectious diseases, health authorities carry out measures creating and strengthening immunity in the population.

Events regarding a receptive team.Huge importance in the prevention of infectious diseases, especially in children's teams, has mass immunization - Preventive vaccination, introduction of specific sera or gamma globulins (see the "Calendar Grade" table).

In the case when causative agents are unknown and no appropriate vaccines are used emergency prevention - Application of antibiotics and other antimicrobials Funds to confront the disease. Vaccination It can be carried out by intradermal administration, subcutaneous administration, civory and aerosol methods.

Proper nutrition and healthy lifestyle - One of the basic measures for the prevention of infectious and other types of diseases.

For some infectious diseases, such as AIDS and hepatitis B, prevention is the main way of struggle. These diseases with difficulty or are not at all treatable at the modern level of development of medicine. They are transmitted from a person to man through blood, so the possible ways of penetration of viruses of these diseases include blood transfusion, an infected needle and a sexual path. Based on this prevention data dangerous diseases includes the following measures:

1. Personality of personal hygiene rules;

2.Rexuality of indiscriminate sexual bonds;

3. Application of special protection methods for sex
connections;

4. Using disposable syringes;

5. Sterilization of medical instruments.

Quarantinea set of regime, administrative and sanitary anti-epidemic measures aimed at preventing the spread of infectious diseases and the elimination of the focus of the defeat is called. If multiple cases of infectious diseases arise in a certain area, quarantine is superimposed. With quarantine, the organization of armed segments of the focus of infection, the prohibition of movement beyond the quarantine zone of persons and groups of the population without preliminary temporary insulation and medical observation, export from the focus of property without prior disinfection, as well as the passage of transport and people through the lesion focus is possible.

With quarantine, contacts are limited between people. Timely isolation of patients in the quarantine zone is one of the most important measures against the spread of infections in the infection area. Employees of medical institutions and other employees associated with constant communication with people take special measures to avoid mutual infection. One of these measures is special clothing. For example, a complete anticipant suit consists of a jumpsuit, a hood, boot, a cotton-marelie bandage on the area of \u200b\u200bthe nose and mouth, canned glasses, rubber gloves and a medical bathrobe.

Observationa set of measures is called enhanced medical observation of the focus of the defeat and the conduct of medical and preventive and restrictive measures in it. If, as a result of research in the hearth, the pathogens are not identified dangerous infections And there is no threat to the proliferation of mass diseases, quarantine is replaced with the observation regime.

The quarantine and observation period is determined by the duration of the maximum incubation period of the disease calculated since the insulation of the last patient and the end of disinfection in the focus.

The elimination of the emergence of foci of infectious diseases is carried out by the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia, the Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia, etc.

In case infectious disease In the children's team Illness isolate or hospitalized. Also arrive in relation to an adult.

In the institution spend:

1) thorough disinfection using chlorine lime preparations;

2) Quarantine activities in a group or class (for a period equal to the maximum incubation period; patients are isolated for the entire period of infection), during which it is impossible: a) translate children from the group to a group, from class to class; b) take into a group of children who were not in contact with patients or who did not ill patients;

3) Daily medical examination of children before receiving a group, a class with thermometry;

4) introduction of contact, non-vaccinated sera children (Gamma Globulin);

5) Current disinfection and ventilation;

6) Inspection and examination of the staff of the institution.

First aid in the bite of mad animals

When the bite of a dog or another animal, a number of urgent events must be held. Immediately wash the wound with warm water with soap. The soap is better to use the economic, there is more alkalis, and the virus is inactivated by alkalis. The best way to prevent rabies disease is to cause abundant bleeding from the wound. The virus that fell into the blood is washed out of blood flowing out of the wound. If there are serious suspicions of the rabies of the estimated animal (aggressive behavior, saliva, water, etc.), keep the wound with a knife or blade and give as much blood from the wound. In the shortest possible time, contact the trauma item! Even if you were bitten by your own dog, a cat or other a petBut you are not sure that the vaccination was made on time, be sure to consult a doctor, and deliver the animal to the veterinary clinic for examination and vaccination. In the injury package you must offer a course of anti-policy treatment. Do not be afraid: 40 injections in the stomach have not been done for a long time. Initially, you will be introduced a vaccine along with antiserum so that the antibodies contained in it helped destroy the virus. Then they will make another 5-6 injections of the vaccine in the shoulder according to a specific temporary scheme. This will allow the body to develop its own immunity against rabies virus.

Spend. Scale prediction method1. General provisions

Sylindy toxic substances (Having dropped) - these are chemicals that are intended for applications in national economic purposes and have toxicity capable of causing mass lesions of people, animals and

plants.

On a number of objects of the national economy, production, use, storage and transportation has been carried out. Violation of the rules of the technology of their production, storage and transportation, the impipline of the service personnel are the cause of emergency situations, a disaster leading to tragic consequences. Alarms with environmental pollution can occur as a result of the destruction of national economy facilities when conducting hostilities or diversions to the same results can lead earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires, etc. natural disasters.

During the outlook (emissions), lesion foci is formed. Moreover, during hostilities or natural disasters, occurring in areas of finding enterprises manufacturing, using or transporting having, the likelihood of such foci of lesion increases greatly. They are usually divided into areas of direct louder (emissions), and the distribution zones of their vapors. An important characteristic of foci of lesion formed by having sought, is the duration of the existence of areas of direct liquefaction (emissions) of substances, i.e. Resistance to infection. Most of the boiling temperature having a boiling point of up to 20 s (chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia), as a rule, evaporate quickly, so the resistance of infection in the areas of their toss (emission) is small. However, pairs of such substances, including in hazardous concentrations, can be detected at large distances (up to several kilometers) from their lifestyle (emission).

The affecting effect has been shown as a result of entering them in a drop-headed state on human skin, as well as inhalation of their vapors. A great influence has a great influence on the evaporation of vapors, according to this, in settlements, forests, on rough terrain, the resistance of infection will be higher than on the open.

1.1. The present method allows predicting the scale of zones of infection during accidents on technological containers and storage facilities, during transportation of railway, pipeline and other types of transport, as well as in case of destruction of chemically hazardous objects.

1.2. The technique applies to the event of a release by driving into the atmosphere in a gaseous, vapor or aerosol state.

1.3. The scale of infection by dying depending on their physical properties and the aggregate state is calculated for the primary and secondary clouds:

for liquefied gases - separately for primary and secondary; for compressed gases - only for primary; For poisonous liquids, boiling above ambient temperature, only for the secondary one.

1.4. Initial data for predicting the scale of infection by having drunk:

the total quantity at the facility and data on the placement of their stocks in technological containers and pipelines;

the number of having dropped, thrown into the atmosphere, and the nature of their spill on the underlying surface ("freely", "into the pallet" or "into the embankment");

the height of the pallet or embankment of storage tanks;

meteorological conditions: air temperature, wind speed at an altitude of 10 m (at the height of the fluger), the degree of vertical air resistance (Appendix 1).

1.5. In order to predict the scale of infection in case of production accidents, it is recommended to receive: emissions by driving ( Q. 0) - the quantity of the unit (technological, warehouse, transport, etc.) *, meteorological conditions - inversion, wind speed of 1 m / s.

* For seismic areas - a total reserve.

To predict the scale of infection immediately after the accident, specific data should be taken on the number of thrown (distinguished) while driving and real meteorological conditions.

1.6. The external boundaries of the zone of infection by driving are calculated by the threshold toxodine with the inhalation effect on the human body.

Accepted assumptions

Thickness h. The liquid layer for having dropped freely on the underlying surface is taken equal to 0.05 m throughout the area of \u200b\u200bthe spill; To have been sinking into a pallet or embankment, is defined as follows:

a) with spills from tanks having an independent pallet (embankment):

h. = H. - 0,2,

where H.- the height of the pallet (embankment), m;

b) with spills from the containers located in the group having a shared pallet (embankment):

where Q. 0 - the amount of thrown (spilled) at an accident substance, t;

d -density by dying, t / m 3;

F.- The real area of \u200b\u200bspill to the pallet (embankment), m 2.

The limit time of people's stay in the zone of infection and the duration of the preservation of unchanged meteorological conditions (the degree of vertical stability of the atmosphere, direction and speed of wind) is 4 hours. After the specified time, the forecast of the situation should be refined.

In case of accidents on gas and product pipelines, the emission of having been accepted with equal to the maximum amount of driving, contained in the pipeline between automatic cutters, for example, for ammonia - 275 - 500 tons.

1.8. Terms and Definitions

A potent poisonous substance (dying) is a chemical substance used in the national economy, which, when taking or emission, can lead to air pollution at the level of affluent concentrations.

The zone of infection by driving - the territory on which the concentration of having sought reaches the values \u200b\u200bdangerous to the life of people.

Under forecasting the scale of infection, the definition of the depth and the area of \u200b\u200bthe zone of infection has been understood.

Under the accident means a violation of technological processes in production, damage to pipelines, containers, storages, vehicleleading to the emission of driving into the atmosphere in quantities that can cause mass lesions of people and animals.

Under the destruction of a chemically dangerous object, it is necessary to understand the result of the catastrophe and natural disasters that led to the complete depressurization of all tanks and violation of technological communications.

The chemically dangerous object of the national economy is an object, with an accident or the destruction of which, mass lesions of people, animals and plants can occur with potent poisonous substances.

The primary cloud - a cloud when driving, sampled as a result of an instant (1 - 3 min) transition to the atmosphere of a part by having drilled out of its destruction.

The secondary cloud - cloud when driving, sampled as a result of evaporation of a spilled substance with an underlying surface.

Threshold toxodosis - inhalation toxodosis, causing initial symptoms of lesions.

Under an equivalent amount, such a quantity of chlorine is understood, the scale of infection with which inverse the scale is equivalent to the scale of infection at a given degree of vertical stability of the atmosphere by a number of having switched to the primary (secondary) cloud.

The area of \u200b\u200bthe actual contamination zone has been dropped - the area of \u200b\u200bthe territory infected with the limits in dangerous to life.

The area of \u200b\u200bthe zone of possible infection by driving - the area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, within which under the influence of changes in the direction of the wind can be moved cloud when driving.

Scale Magnid.

The scale of the magnitudes distinguishes the earthquake in the magnitude of the magnitude, which is the relative energy characteristic of the earthquake. There are several magnitudes and, accordingly, magnitudes: Local magnitude (ML); magnitude, determined by surface waves (MS); Magnid, determined by volumetric waves (MB); Magnid (MW).

The most popular scale for estimating earthquake energy is the local scale of Richter magnitude. On this scale, the increasing magnitude per unit corresponds to a 30-fold increase in the released seismic energy. Earthquake with magnitude 2 barely significantly, whereas magnitude 7 corresponds to the lower border of destructive earthquakes covering large areas. The intensity of earthquakes (cannot be estimated by the magnitude) is estimated to damage them that they cause in populated areas.

Richter's scale is the classification of earthquakes for magnitudes based on the estimation of the energy of seismic waves arising during earthquakes. The scale was proposed in 1935 by the American seismologist Charles Richter (1900-1985), theoretically substantiated together with the American seismologist Beno Gutenberg in 1941-1945, received widespread distribution worldwide.
The earthquake of different magnitude (on the Richter scale) is manifested as follows:
2.0 - the weakest felt shoes;
4.5 - the weakest shocks leading to small destruction;
6.0 - moderate destruction;
8.5 - the strongest of famous earthquakes.
11 canoes, acid rain and their effect on human health.

Smole (from English Smoky Fog., literally, "smoke fog") is an aerosol consisting of smoke, fog and dust, one of the types of air pollution in large cities and industrial centers. Three types of smog are distinguished: ice can (Alaskan type); wet (London type); Dry, or photochemical (Dia Angers-Lesky Type). The most studied wet was able. It is common for places with high relative humidity and frequent fogs. This contributes to the mixing of pollutants, their interaction in chemical reactions. These pollutants are directly discharged into the atmosphere, they are called primary pollutants. The main toxic components of wet smog are most often CO 2 and SO2. The case is sadly famous, Worm in 1952. Wet could have burned in London more than 4 thousand lives.
Photochemical was able to secondary air pollution arising in the process of decomposition of primary pollutants with sunbeams. The main poison component is ozone.
Ice can occur at very low temperatures and anticyclone. In this case, emissions even a small amount of pollutants lead to the occurrence of a thick fog consisting of the smallest crystals of ice and, for example, sulfuric acid.

Impact on health

Smoking is a big problem in many megalopolis of the world. It is especially dangerous for children, older people and people with hearts and lungs, painful bronchitis, asthma, emphysema. Smoking could cause shortness of shortness of breath, difficulty and stopping breathing, insomnia, headaches, cough. He also causes inflammation of the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and larynx, decrease in immunity. During the smog, the number of hospitalizations, relapses and deaths from respiratory and heart disease is often rising.

Acid rain - All kinds of meteorological precipitation: rain, snow, hail, fog, rain with snow, in which a decrease in the pH of rain precipitation is observed due to air pollution with acid oxides usually: sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides. They are formed during industrial emissions into the atmosphere of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which, connecting with atmospheric moisture, form sulfur and nitric acid. As a result, rain and snow are acidified (pH number below 5.6 ). Impact Acid rains per person also wears not only direct character. Of course, microparticles of sulfates and nitrates contained in the air increase the risk of an asthma attack, bronchitis disease, harm the cardiovascular system. But no less dangerous for a person, the destruction of crops and pastures, the death of commercial fish caused by acid precipitation. First of all, the danger is determined by the sizes of these particles. Large particles are mainly stopped by the upper breathing paths, and small (drops that consist of a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids can penetrate into the lungs and damage there. In addition, heavy metals can fall into the food of a person, which can lead to poisoning.

Preparation for earthquake.

Each living in a seismic area must consciously and systematically plan their actions during a possible earthquake. You have a much greater chance to keep calm and the ability to reasonable actions, if you think in advance - your actions in various conditions and place, day, night, at home, at work, in public places (shop, theater), in transport, visiting And in other places where you are.
Below are activities that can be made. Some of them are the simplest measures that can be accepted immediately, other recommendations are addressed to those who are ready to spend their time and strength to ensure additional security.
AT HOME
1. Conduct a detailed discussion of an earthquake opportunity in your family, make up and ask home well to remember the collection plan for the whole family after the earthquake. Picking point Place outdoors near the house.
2. Next in advance the most economical and safe way out of the room in the event of an earthquake. Remember that it can occur at night when lighting off, staircases, corridors, doors will be clogged with people. The door can also jam.
3. Determine in advance the safest places in the apartment (home): internal angles Capital walls and opening of entrance doors, places under the beams of the building frame (seismopoyea), tables, beds.
4. Teach the secure place of children, as well as other members of your family.
5. Check your home - ceilings, roofing, chimney, wiring condition and gas pipes. Determine what measures are required to strengthen it.
6. Provide in the apartment (house), the possibility of quick exit, remove the extra, interfering with the corridors and passages.
7. Attach bulky furniture and bookcases, mezzanine and other heavy items to the walls and floor, and other heavy items, secure chandeliers and other lighting devices.
8. Remember, strengthen and put cabinets, shelves, the furniture is necessary so that they do not block the door in case of falling, did not cover the door.
9. Sleeps need to be located away from large windows, glass partitions, mirrors I have heavy items that can fall. Over the beds and sofas do not hold the shelves, heavy paintings.
10. It is desirable not to store flammable or poisonous liquids in the apartment or keep them in a reliable place where they cannot break.
11. Have a first-aid kit and possess our rendering. If you constantly take any medicines, have their stock.

12. Always have a radio receiver on batteries, a pocket lamp and a battery reserve to them, matches.
13. Find out how gas is turned off, electricity and water in your apartment (home). If a wrench is needed for overlapping a highway, put it or attach it nearby from the blocked valve.
14. It is advisable to store documents, especially valuable and products from precious metals in such a place in the bag so that if necessary, it was possible to quickly take them with you.
15. Creating a stock of canned food and beverages, count on the first 3 - 5 days. All this can be put in a backpack or bag and store in a prominent place.
AT WORK
1. Develop an event plan for an earthquake case. Determine the responsibilities of each member of the team - who and what should do or not disturb others.
2. Examine, and firmly know the procedure for collecting and actions according to plan and your duties. Remember that during the earthquake, the collection notification is not carried out due to possible damage to the means of communication and restrictions on this.
3. Develop instructions for the formations of civil protection to carry out the necessary measures during the earthquake.
4. Maintain order in buildings, workshops, workshops, do not clutter the corridors and passage, staircases. Check that the exterior doors quickly and easily unlored and opened from the inside.
5. Prepare to the rapid opening of spare doors, gates, lower floors windows, additional passages at checkpoints.
6. Silent cabinets and racks reliably attach to the floors and walls, do not have heavy items on the upper shelves.
7. Examine and remember the location of fire cranes and posts, electrosubilaterals, gas and water supply trunk cranes, often check their serviceability.
In medical institutions
1. Conduct instructing for the treatment of patients about the rules of behavior and their actions during the earthquake. Specify them the places of shelter in the wards and rooms, ways out.
2. Determine the responsibilities of medical and service personnel on the conduct of protective and sediments seriously ill.
3. Beds of patients. Look away from large windows and glass partitions.
4. Develop activities to continue or stop operational and other surgical and instrumental interventions.
In pre-school and school institutions
1. Spend instructing teachers and technical staff about their actions during an earthquake.
2. Explain in detail the children what to do if the earthquakes will find them at school.
3. Put in order corridors and spare outputs, windows of the first floors.
4. Parents: We must promise to children that after the earthquake, you will immediately take them home.
5. Support the idea of \u200b\u200bseismic alarms, classes and training, while thoroughly protect the children's psyche by entering the elements of the game in combination with the education of a sense of responsibility. Do not inspire the fear of the earthquake.

Fractures. First aid.

Fracture - This is a traumatic disorder of the integrity of the bone as a result of a mechanical impact or illness. Fractures are divided into open and closed. Signs of a closed fracture: Skin cover is not disturbed, swelling is observed at the site of the fracture, the natural position of the limb is disturbed. With the open fracture, the integrity of the skin is disturbed, an open wound is formed.

Additional features, according to which the presence of a fracture is determined: a crunch in a place of closed fracture; bone wreckage in the wound with an open fracture; swelling of soft tissues, subcutaneous hemorrhage; Violation of the functioning of the injured limb. Strong pain accompanying fractures can provoke pain shock, a very dangerous state that may entail the death of the patient. The shock state is characterized by a common depression, intensity of the functions of the body and the state of weakness.

First aid for fractures:

If you have become an eyewitness of an accident, as a result of which a person received a fracture, immediately call ambulance . Doctors will provide first medical care, facilitate the patient's condition. Before the arrival of ambulance, inspect the patient. If the spinal fracture is suspected, it is desirable not to touch the patient not to shift vertebral discs. If the transportation is still necessary, the patient needs to be put down the stomach down on the board, covered with something soft. With a fracture of the spine may occur paralysis of the legs, urination disorder.

If the spine is not damaged, gently transfer the patient to a safe place. Inspect the fracture and replace the first promptual help. If there is bleeding, impose harness, using any breeding means (rope, tie), putting some fabric under it. The harness is superimposed above the place of bleeding, no more than two hours.

On the time of the imposition of a harness must be warned by a doctor. Next, the patient must be immobilized with the help of any girlfriend (sheets or sticks). The improvised tire is superimposed on two joints, above and below the fracture. If the shoulder or hip joint is injured - the tire must fix three joints.

After overlaying the bus is recorded by pieces of fabric, clothing or any other infrident means. When you embed a tire, do not try to connect the broken bones, simply fix the finiteness. To avoid tire pressure to bone protrusions, it is necessary to put something soft (wool, shawls) under it.

Rescue work

system of activities carried out by specially formed divisions and aimed at saving people, material and cultural values, protecting the natural environment in the emergency location, localization of emergency, suppression or bring to the lowest possible level of impact dangerous factors, threatening life and health of people. S.R. include the following activities: exploration of emergency zone, search and debloking of victims, providing them with first aid, evacuation from the defeat area and their livelihood. In conducting S.R. The troops and the formation of civil defense, division of the search and rescue service and the service of disasters, fire services, as well as the formation of departmental rescue services, can take part.

HIV infection. AIDS.

HIV is a human immunodeficiency virus, which is a causative agent of a disease called HIV infection. This disease has several stages, the latter of which is called AIDS.

AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: syndrome - a set of signs and symptoms of this disease, acquired - genetically unconditional, but the deficit obtained in the course of life, in this case immune system, Immunodeficiency is the defeat of the immune system, the inability to resist the infections.

Immunity is a special function of the human body to protect against living bodies and substances carrying signs of genetically alien information. The immune system is evaluating specific molecules - antibodies to combat various pathogens and alien substances (antigens).

I am expressed by the official way, the infection can occur when the infected blood invested in the bloodstream of the unreleased person (with injections, the non-sterile syringe, transfusion of infected blood products) is either sexual. When infected with sexually, the virus penetrates into the body through the mucous membranes of the vagina, the penis, the rectum, or, much less often, the oral cavity. It is also possible to infect a baby from the mother during pregnancy (intrauterine), during childbirth or when breastfeeding. Other ways to infect HIV infection are not registered.

Domestic infection of doctors consider it impossible, as HIV can live outside the body just a few minutes. However, for the prevention of Injection transfer of HIV, it should be assumed that the used syringe can contain a living virus for several days.

It is impossible to infect HIV through hugs and handshakes. Non-damped leather - barrier for the virus. For theoretical risk of HIV transmission through a handshake, it is necessary that a sufficient amount of blood containing HIV falls into a fresh open wound.

HIV is contained only in blood, sperm, vaginal discharge and breast milk. Through clothes, bed linen, HIV towels cannot pass, even if on clothes, linen has a liquid containing HIV. He dies too fast outside the person. Over 20 years of the epidemic, there were no cases of consumer transfer of HIV, and observations were also in pairs, where one partner is a positive, the other is HIV-negative.

Infeit HIV in the pool, bath, bath can not. When a liquid containing HIV, the virus will die, besides, again, the skin is a reliable barrier from the virus. The only way to infect HIV in the pool is to have sex there without a condom.

HIV is not transmitted through insect bites, other contacts with animals. HIV - human immunodeficiency virus, it can live and multiply only in the human body. Animals cannot transmit HIV. The blood of a person cannot get into someone else's blood flow and when a mosquito bite. HIV is not able to multiply in the body of a mosquito or any other bloodstray, therefore, even falling into the insect's body, does not survive and cannot infect anyone.

It is also impossible to infected HIV through kisses too. The risk of HIV infection when surrendering the analysis or surgical intervention with a properly performed sterilization (and the presence of the doctor's gloves) is excluded.

HIV infection is characterized by a perennial course with progressive decrease in immunity, leading to the development of severe forms of opportunistic and oncological diseases. So far, it is believed that in the overwhelming majority of cases, HIV infection has one single outcome - the death of an infected HIV of the body. However, the overall theory of the infectious process allows the existence of both less infectious or defective strains of HIV and infection-resistant patients.

During HIV infection, several periods can be distinguished: the incubation period; The period of early clinical manifestations; latent period; The period of development of secondary diseases and the terminal period. It should be noted that the infected person is infected at all stages of the development of the disease, but especially in the acute period and in the stage of AIDS, when intensive breeding of the virus is in the body.

Most often, AIDS flows in a pulmonary form (in 50-80% of patients), which manifests itself in the development of pneumonia, which proceeds much harder than that of an unreleased HIV, in a special form - pneumatic.

Many patients have an intestinal form, which is manifested in the form of a protracted (for several months), but not very intense diarrhea, which leads to loss of body weight by more than 10% and dehydration of the patient's body. Gastrointestinal diseases in AIDS are usually due to yeast-like mushrooms of the genus Candida (candidiasis), tuberculosis bacteria, salmonells, cytomegalovirus. The chronic form of dysentery can exacerbate. The manifestations of these diseases can be the most diverse.

Treatment of HIV-infected and AIDS patients is to suppress the virus, in the fight against the reduction of immunity to immunity by opportunistic infections and onco-scabers, as well as in the stimulation of the immune system.

The main problems faced by doctors in the treatment of HIV infection were high toxicity of drugs and high adaptability of the virus to these drugs. Therefore, combination therapy was proposed for treatment. Antiretroviral therapy (ARVT) implies the use of three (minimum of two) drugs that stop the reproduction of HIV. Three groups of drugs are currently known: the first and second are drugs acting on the inverse transcriptase enzyme, impede the transfer of virus RNA information to the DNA host cell; The third group is drugs acting on another HIV-protease enzyme prevent the formation of full HIV particles.

Burns, burns of burns.

Burning - damage to the body tissues caused by the action of high temperature or the effect of some chemicals (alkalis, acids, salts of heavy metals, etc.).

There are four degrees of burns. The severity of the injury depends on the temperature of the object, the duration of contact with it, the depth of the tissues and the magnitude of the burned body.

Burn 1 degree;

2 degree burn;

3 degree burn;

Logging 4 degrees.

The degree of burns

The first degree burns are superficial burns that cause only redness of the skin. The most common first-degree burn is sunny. The first degree burns can be very painful, but do not constitute a serious danger, even if they are extensive. They rarely lead to long complications and infrequently require the doctor's appeal.

The second degree burns lead to peeling the surface layer of the skin and the formation of blisters. Most often, such burns are caused by hot water and very strong burning in the sun. The bodies of the second degree are very painful and often cause severe common disorders. The scars on the site of such burns are usually not formed, and infection rarely occurs.

Burns of the third and fourth degrees damage all layers of skin and penetrate into deeper tissues. Could come charging the burnt area. This area may be painless, since the nerve ending dying. True, often painless burns of the third or fourth degree can be surrounded by painful areas with the bogs of the second degree. Such burns lead to education

Harmful is the substance that, when contacting a person's organism, can cause injuries, diseases or deviations in a state of health, detectable modern methods Both in the process of contact with it, and in the long-term deadlines of the present and subsequent generations.

Chemicals depending on their practical use are classified on:

Industrial poices used in production: for example, organic solvents, fuel, dyes;

Jadhimicates used in agriculture: pesticides, insecticides;

Medicines;

Household chemicals used in the form food additives (acetic acid), sanitation products, personal hygiene, cosmetics, etc.;

Biological vegetable and animals of the poisons, which are contained in plants and mushrooms, in animals and insects;

Poisoning substances.

Poisonous properties can show all substances, even such as table salt in large doses or oxygen when increased pressure. However, it is customary to belong to poisons that their harmful effects exhibit under normal conditions and in relatively small quantities.

The industrial poisons include a large group of chemicals and compounds, which in the form of raw materials, intermediate or finished products are found in production.

In the body, industrial chemicals can penetrate through the respiratory organs, the gastrointestinal tract (violation of personal hygiene rules, partial swallowing of steam or dust, non-compliance with safety regulations when working in chemical laboratories) and intact skin (substances that are well soluble in fats and lipoids. The poisoning causes substances with increased toxicity, low volatility, rapidly solubility in the blood (nitro and aminoproducts of aromatic hydrocarbons, tetraethylswin, methyl alcohol)). However, the main way is the lungs. In addition to acute and chronic professional intoxication, industrial poisons can cause a decrease in the body's stability and an increased overall incidence.

Household poisonings most often occur when the poison in the gastrointestinal tract (Yadohimikatov, household chemicals, medicinal substances). Possible acute poisoning and diseases when entering the poison directly into the blood, for example, in the bite of snakes, insects, during the injections of medicinal substances.

The toxic effect of harmful substances is characterized by indices of toxicometry, in accordance with which substances are classified on extremely toxic, highly toxic, moderately toxic and small-toxic. The effect of toxic action of various substances depends on the amount of substance in the body, its physical properties, the duration of the receipt, the chemical of interaction with biological environments (blood, enzymes). In addition, the effect depends on gender, age, individual sensitivity, ways to enter and eliminate, distribution in the body, as well as meteorological conditions and other concomitant environmental factors.

Poons, along with general, have electoral toxicity, i.e. they represent the greatest danger to a certain organ or system of the body. In electoral toxicity, poisons are distinguished:

Cardiac cardiac toxic effect; This group includes many medications, vegetable poisons, metals salts (barium, potassium, cobalt, cadmium);

Nervous disruption mainly mental activity (carbon monoxide, phosphorodorganic compounds, alcohol and its surrogates, drugs, sleeping pills drugs, etc.);

Hepatic, among which chlorinated hydrocarbons, poisonous mushrooms, phenols and aldehydes should be highlighted;

Renal - compounds of heavy metals ethylene glycol, oxalic acid;

Blood -aniline and its derivatives, nitrites, arsenic hydrogen;

Pulmonary - nitrogen oxides, ozone, phosgene, etc.

Poisoning proceeds in acute, subacute and chronic formas. Acute poisonings are more often group and occur as a result of accidents, breakdowns of equipment and gross violations of labor safety requirements; They are characterized by a short-term effect of toxic substances no more than for one shift; admission to the body of a harmful substance in relatively large quantities - at high concentrations in the air; erroneous intake inside; Strong contamination of the skin. For example, extremely fast poisoning may occur when exposed to gasoline vapor, high concentrations, hydrogen sulfide and end the death of the respiratory center, if the victim immediately does not take place on fresh air. Nitrogen oxides due to general oxygen action in severe cases can cause coma development, convulsions, a sharp drop in blood pressure.

Chronic poisoning occurs gradually, with long-term admission of poison in the body in relatively small quantities. Poisoning develops due to the accumulation of the mass of harmful substance in the body (material cumulation) or violations caused by them in the body (functional cumulation). Chronic respiratory poisoning may be a consequence of a one-time or several repeated acute intoxication. To poisons causing chronic poisoning as a result of only functional cumulation include chlorinated hydrocarbons, benzene, gasoline, etc.

Most industrial poisons cause both acute chronic poisoning. However, some toxic substances usually determine the development of predominantly chronic phase of poisoning (lead, mercury, manganese).

In addition to the specific toxic effect of harmful chemicals, it can contribute to the overall weakening of the body, in particular a decrease in resistance to infectious start. For example, the dependence between the development of influenza, angina, pneumonia and the presence of such toxic substances such as lead, hydrogen sulfide in the body of such toxic substances such as lead, hydrogen sulfide, benzene, and others.

The development of poisoning and the degree of poison is dependent on the characteristics of the physiological state of the body. Physical stress accompanying labor activity, inevitably increases the minute volume of heart and respiration, causes certain shifts in metabolism and increases the need for oxygen, which restrains the development of intoxication.

Sensitivity to poisons to a certain extent depends on the floor and age of working. It has been established that some physiological conditions in women can increase the sensitivity of their organism to the influence of a series of poisons (benzene, lead, mercury). It is indisputable poor resistance to female skin to the effects of irritants, as well as a large permeability in the skin of fat-soluble toxic compounds.

Currently, about 7 million chemicals and compounds are known, of which 60 thousand are used in human activity. The international market annually appears 500 ... 1000 new chemical compounds and mixtures.

20. The rationing of the content of harmful substances in the air: maximum permissible, maximum-time, average daily concentrations, shoes.

To limit the impact of harmful substances hygienic rationing Their content in various environments. When establishing the MPC in the air of the working area or in the air pool of settlements, focus on the toxicological indicator or reflex reaction of the body.

Due to the fact that the requirement of the complete absence of industrial poisons in the respiratory zone of working often impossible is particularly important, the hygienic regulation of the content of harmful substances in the air of the working area (GOST 12.1.005.- 88, CH 2.2.4 / 2.1.548 - 96) . Such regulation is carried out in three stages:

1) justification of the approximately safe level of impact (shoes);

2) Justification of MPC;

3) Correction of MPC, taking into account the working conditions of working and their health.

Approximately safe level of exposure is established temporarily, for the period preceding production design. The value of the shoe is determined by calculating the physicochemical properties or by interpolation and extrapolating in the homological ranks of the compounds or by acute toxicity indicators. The program must be reviewed two years after their approval.

The shoes are not installed:

- for substances dangerous in terms of the development of remote and irreversible effects;

- For substances to be widespread in practice.

For sanitary assessment of the air, the following indicators are used:

PDKR.Z - the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substance in the air of the working area, mg / m3. This concentration should not be caused from daily inhalation within 8 hours during the entire working experience of diseases or deviations in a state of health detected by modern research methods directly during the work or to a long-term date. The working area is the space, a height of up to 2 m above the floor or platform, on which there are places of permanent or temporary stay of the workers.

Until recently, the MPC of chemicals was assessed as the most time. Excess them even for a short time was prohibited. Recently, for substances with cumulative properties, a second value was introduced - the medium-term concentration. This average concentration obtained by continuous or intermittent air sampling in the total time of at least 75% of the duration of the work shift, or the weighted average concentration during the shift in the respiratory zone working on the places of permanent or temporary stays.

For substances with a skin-resorbative effect, the maximum allowable level of skin pollution (mg / cm2) is justified in accordance with GN 2.2.5.563-96.

MPC for atmospheric air is lower than for the working area. It is explained by the fact that almost healthy people work at the enterprise during the working day, and there are not only adults in settlements around the clock, but also children, elderly and sick people, pregnant and nursing women.

The maximum (one-time) concentration of the PDKMR is the highest of the 30-minute concentrations registered at this point for a certain period of time.

The establishment of the PDKMR is based on the principle of preventing reflex reactions in humans.

The average daily concentration of PDKSS is the average of the concentrations revealed during the day or selected continuously within 24 hours.

The basis of the determination of the average daily concentration is the principle of preventing general oxic effect on the body.

If the toxic threshold for a substance is less sensitive, then the MPC is decisive in justifying the threshold of reflex action as the most sensitive. In such cases, PDKMR\u003e PDKSS. If the reflector threshold is less sensitive than the toxic threshold, then the PDKMR \u003d PDKSS is taken. For substances in which the threshold of reflex action is missing, only PDKSS is installed.

The rationing of the quality of water rivers, lakes and reservoirs are carried out in accordance with the "sanitary rules and norms of protection of surface water from pollution" No. 4630-88. At the same time, reservoirs of two categories are considered: I - drinking and drinking and cultural and domestic purposes, II - fisheries.

When normalizing the quality of water, the MPC is set to the limiting feature of the harmfulness of HP. LPV - a sign of the harmful effect of a substance that is characterized by the smallest threshold concentration.

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Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

Kazan National Technical University. A.N. Tupolev

Department of General Chemistry and Ecology

abstract

By discipline: Toxicology

Topic: Ways of penetration of poisons to the body

Kazan, 2013.

General concepts about poisons and poisoning

Poisoning is a disease caused by the introduction into the organism of poisonous substances.

The poison is the concept of relative, since various poisonous substances depending on their properties and quantities can be not only useful, but also necessary for the body. However, the same substances adopted in large quantities are able to cause health disorder and even death. Thus, the salt, introduced in conventional quantities, is a necessary food product, but 60 - 70 g of it causes the phenomena of poisoning, and 300 - 500 g - death; Even ordinary water adopted in large quantities can cause poisoning and death. When taking inside of distilled water, there are phenomena of poisoning, the introduction of it into the blood can end with death. It is believed that those substances that, when introduced into the organism, cause severe disorders or death in the minimum quantities. In some cases, it is difficult to carry out a sharp boundary between poison and medicine.

The study of poisoning is engaged in the science of poison - toxicology. It studies the physical and chemical properties of poisons, a harmful effect, the path of penetration, the transformation of poisons in the body, means of preventing and treating poisoning and the possibility of using the effects of poisons in medicine and industry.

For the onset of poisoning, a number of conditions are needed. One of these is the penetration of a poisonous substance into blood, and through it in the cells of organs and tissues. This disrupts the course of normal processes, changes or destroys the cell structure and entails their death. To make poisoning, it is necessary to introduce a certain amount of poison. The symptoms, severity, the duration of the flow and the outcome of poisoning depend on the number of poison entered.

For all potent and poisonous substances, the state pharmacopoeia has established doses, which are guided by doctors in their practice. The dose may be therapeutic, toxic and deadly. The therapeutic dose is a certain minimum amount of a potent or poisonous substance that is used with therapeutic goal; Toxic - causes health disorder, i.e. phenomena of poisoning; For a deadly dose, the minimum amount of poison per kilogram of weight is taken, which can cause death.

With the same dose, the concentration of poison in the body of non-etinakov: the more body weight, the less the concentration of poison and vice versa. On people alone and the same dose acts in different ways. The introduction of a certain number of poison is large, physically strong a person can pass without any complications, but the dose adopted by thinness and a weak subject can be toxic. With an increase in the dose, the poisonous effect increases disproportionately: an increase in dose 2 times can increase toxicity of 15 or more times.

Pharmacopoeia has various doses for adults and children. Children have increased sensitivity to poisons, in particular to drugs. Increased sensitivity to poisons is observed in old people, as well as in women, especially during menstruation or pregnancy. Worsens the course and outcome of poisoning the presence of victims of various diseases internal organs, especially liver, kidneys, hearts. Thus, the development, course and outcome of poisoning depend not only on the dose of poison, but also on the state of the body.

One of the necessary conditions for the development of chronic poisoning is the so-called cumulation of poison, i.e., gradual accumulation of it in some organs and tissues. This may occur in cases where conditions are created for permanent flow into the organism of small doses of poison. In this case, an important role is played by violation of the processes of poison from the body, since the accumulation process is mainly expressed in the relationship between the admission of a poisonous substance and the elimination of it from the body.

A prerequisite for the development of poisoning is the physical state of poison, which is of great importance in the process of its suction and assimilation. Insoluble in water, in the gastrointestinal tract, poisonous substances, as a rule, harmless to the body: they are not absorbed, or absorbed into the blood in minor quantities. Soluble toxic substances are rapidly absorbed and therefore acts much faster, for example, a chloride barium salt, easily soluble in water, is very toxic, and sulfur-acid barium insoluble in water and body liquids is harmless and widely used in X-ray diagnostic practice. The strong poison of the coarara, introduced through the mouth, does not cause poisoning phenomena, since it is absorbed very slowly, and it is much faster from the body much faster, but the same number of poison entered into blood leads to death. The concentration of poison is of great importance. So, strongly diluted hydrochloric acid is almost harmless to the body, and concentrated is the strongest poison. Especially quickly acting gaseous poisons; Finding through the light into the blood, they immediately spread throughout the body, showing the properties inherent in them.

One of the conditions for the development of poisoning is the quality of the poison, i.e. its chemical purity. Often a poison substance is introduced into the body with various impurities that can enhance or weaken the effect of poison, and sometimes neutralize it.

Ways of receipt of poisons in the body

The admission of poisons into the human body can occur through the respiratory organs, the digestive tract and the skin. And the mainstream are the respiratory tract. Poisons penetrating them to have more strong actionThan the poisons penetrating through the intestine, since in the first case they directly go into blood, and in the second - pass through the liver, which delays and partially neutralizes them.

In investigative and forensic practice, there are cases of administration of poison intravenously, subcutaneously, as well as in the vagina and the rectum. The polar stomach is absorbed relatively slowly due to the fact that the inner wall covers the mucous layer, which prevents the rapid penetration of poison into blood. But some poisons, for example, sinyl acid compounds are absorbed very quickly. The poisons, being in the stomach, often cause irritation of its walls, as a result of which vomiting comes and part or the entire poisonous substance is displayed out. With a stomach filled with a stomach, the poison is absorbed slower than with empty. The most complete absorption occurs in the small intestine.

Through the lungs, poisoning of poisonous gases and couples, such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, a pair of sinyl acid. At appropriate concentrations, the poisoning occurs very quickly due to the ease of the passage of the poison through the alveios of the lungs and enter it into the blood.

Some poisons, such as mercury preparations, easily penetrate the body through the skin, and the integrity of the surface layer of the skin - epidermis; Wounds, abrasions and general places devoid of epidermis are more vulnerable to penetration of poisons into the body.

In the rectum and in the vagina, suction occurs quite quickly. Poisoning through the vagina may occur when using a poisonous substance for the purpose of criminal abortion, as well as with medical errors.

Admission of a substance through the lungs

The huge surface of the pulmonary alveoli (about 80-90 m2) ensures intensive absorption and the rapid effect of the action of poisonous vapor and gases present in the inhaled air. At the same time, the lungs become "entrance gates" for those of them that are well soluble in fats. Diffusing through the alveolar-capillary membrane with a thickness of about 0.8 μm, separating airdrons from the bloodstream, the molecules of poisons with the most strongest way to penetrate into a small circle of blood circulation and then, bypassing the liver, through the heart reach blood vessels Big Circle.

The possibility of receipt of a substance through the lungs is determined primarily by its aggregate state (steam, gas, aerosol) this path of penetration of production poisons into the body is the main and most dangerous, since the surface of the pulmonary alveoli occupies a significant area (100-120 m2), and the blood flow in the lungs is enough intense.

The absorption rate of chemicals in blood depends on their aggregate state, solubility in water and biosrans, partial pressure in alveolar air, the values \u200b\u200bof pulmonary ventilation, blood in the lungs, the state of the lung tissue (the presence of inflammatory foci, transudates, exudates), chemical interaction with biosubstrates respiratory systems.

Admission to the blood of volatile chemicals (gases and vapors) is subordinate to certain patterns. Not reacting and reacting gases and vapor substances are absorbed differently. The absorption of non-reactive gases and vapors (hydrocarbons of fatty and aromatic rows and their derivatives) are carried out in the lungs on the principle of simple diffusion in the direction of a decrease in concentration gradient.

For non-reacting gases (vapor), the distribution coefficient is the magnitude of constant. By his meaning, it is possible to judge the danger of severe poisoning of a gasoline pair (K - 2,1), for example, at high concentrations are able to cause instant acute and even death poisoning. Acetone pairs that have a high distribution coefficient (K \u003d 400) cannot cause acute, even more so fatal poisoning, since acetone, in contrast to gasoline, saturates blood slower.

When inhaling the reacting gases, the saturation of the body's tissues does not occur due to their rapid chemical transformation. The faster the processes of biotransformation of poisons are undergoing, the less they accumulate in the form of their products. Sorption of reacting gases and vapors occurs at a constant speed. The percentage of sorbed substance is directly dependent on the volume of breathing. As a result, the risk of acute poisoning is the more significant than the longer the person is in a polluted atmosphere, physical work performed under conditions of heating microclimatat may contribute to the development of intoxication.

The point of application of the reacting gases and vapors can be different. Some of them (chloropod, ammonia, sulfur oxide (IV)), which are well dissolved in water, are sorbed mainly in the upper respiratory tracts of real (chlorine, nitrogen oxide (IV)), which are worse in water, penetrate the alveoli and are sorbed in Mainly there.

Penetration of poisons through the skin

The skin is one of the possible ways to enter the poisons into the body. Through the epidermis, only substances soluble in lipids penetrate. Water soluble substances penetrate the skin only in minor quantities. The penetration of water-soluble substances in the body prevents the fat layer formed on the surface of the skin as a result of the secretory activity of the sebaceous glands. Nicotine, tetraethylswin, chlorofolding hydrocarbons, chlorine-containing pesticides, aromatic amines, fatty hydrocarbons (from from 6 to 10), finely divided salts of thaulium, mercury and other metals are easily penetrated through the skin. With mechanical damage to the skin, the penetration of poisonous substances through the skin increases.

The mechanism of suction of chemicals through the skin is complex. Perhaps their direct (trans-readermal) penetration through epidermis, hair follicles and sebaceous glands, sweat glands. Different areas of skin have an unequal ability to suck production poisons; More suitable for penetration of toxic agents leather on the medial surface of the hips and arms, in the groin area, genital organs, chest and abdomen.

At the first stage, the toxic agent passes through the epidermis - a lipoprotein barrier, transmitting only for gases and fat-soluble organic substances. At the second stage, the substance falls out of the dermis in the blood. This barrier is available for compounds, good or partially soluble in water (blood). The danger of skin-resorbative action is significantly increasing, if the indicated physico-chemical properties of poison are combined with high toxicity.

The production poisons capable of causing intoxication in the case of penetration through the skin include aromatic amino and nitro compounds, phosphorodorganic insecticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, that is, compounds that are not peculiar to dissociation on ions (non-electrolytes). The electrolytes through the skin do not penetrate, they are delayed, as a rule, in a horn or brilliant layer of epidermis. The exception is heavy metals such as lead, tin, copper, arsenic, bismuth, mercury, antimony and their salts. Connecting with fatty acids and skin saber on the surface or inside the horn layer of the epidermis, they form salts, capable of overcome the epidermal barrier.

Not only liquid substances polluting it penetrate through the skin, but also the volatile gas and vapor-shaped electrolytes, the skin is an inert membrane through which they penetrate with diffusion.

The absorption of toxic substances from the digestive tract in most cases is essential, since different parts of its departments have their own personal device, innervation, chemical environment and enzyme glass A.

Some toxic substances (all fat-soluble compounds, phenols, some salts, especially cyanides) are already absorbed in the oral cavity. In this case, the toxicity of substances increases due to the fact that they are not exposed to the gastric juice and, bypassing the liver, do not neutralize in it.

All fat-soluble substances and non-ionized organic matter molecules using a simple diffusion are absorbed from the stomach. Through the pores of the cell membrane of the gastric epithelium, the substances may be penetrated by filtration. Many poisons, including lead connections, in gastric content dissolve better than in water, so better and absorbed. Some chemicals, hitting the stomach, completely lose current toxicity or it significantly decreases through the inactivation of gastric content.

The character and speed of suction significantly affect the degree of filling of the stomach, solubility in the gastric contents and its pH of the substance adopted by an empty stomach is absorbed, as a rule, more intense.

Suction through the digestive tract

poison poisoning epidermis blood

With poisoned food, water, as well as in the "pure" form, toxic substances are absorbed into the blood through the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, the stomach and intestines. Most of them are absorbed into the epithelial cells of the digestive tract and further into the blood according to the mechanism of simple diffusion. At the same time, the leading, factor in the penetration of poisons into the inner media of the body is their solubility in lipids (fats), more precisely - the nature of the distribution between the lipid and aqueous phases in the suction site. A significant role is also played by the degree of dissociation of poisons.

As for the zero-perfumed alien substances, many of them penetrate through the cell membranes of the mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines in the persons or spaces between the membranes. Although the pore area is only about 0.2% of the entire membrane surface, however, it ensures the absorption of many water-soluble and hydrophilic substances. The blood current from the gastrointestinal tract Toxic substances are delivered to the liver - an organ that performs the barrier function with respect to the overwhelming majority of alien compounds.

The absorption of toxic substances from the digestive tract is mainly in the small intestine. Fuel soluble substances are well absorbed by diffusion. The lipophilic compounds quickly penetrate the slicing wall, but relatively slowly absorbed into the blood. For rapid suction, the substance has good solubility in lipoids and water. The solubility in water contributes to the suction of the poison from the intestine wall in the blood. The absorption rate of chemicals depends on the degree of ionization of the molecule. Strong acids and alkali are absorbed slowly due to the formation of complexes with intestinal mucus. Substances close to the structure to natural compounds are absorbed through the mucous membrane by active transport, which ensures the flow of nutrients.

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In the body, chemicals can penetrate through the respiratory organs, the gastrointestinal tract and intact skin. However, the main way of receipt are lungs. In addition to acute and chronic professional intoxication, industrial poisons can cause a decrease in the body's stability and an increased overall incidence. Finding into the respiratory organs, these substances cause atrophy or hypertrophy of the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract, and lingering in lungs, lead to the development of connective tissue in the air exchange zone and scarring (fibrosis) of lungs. Professional diseases associated with the effects of aerosols, pneumocionalia and pneumosclerosis, chronic dust bronchitis occupy second place in frequency among professional diseases in Russia.

Ingressing poisons to the gastrointestinal tract is possible if the rules of personal hygiene are non-compliance: Food reception in the workplace and smoking without pre-washing hands. Poisonous substances can be absorbed from the oral cavity, acting immediately into the blood. Harmful substances can fall into the human body through intact skin cover, and not only from the liquid medium in contact with the hands, but also in the case of high concentrations of toxic vapor and gases in the air in the workplace. Dissolving in the secreet of sweat glands and skin fat, substances can easily enter blood. These include hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, benzene, aniline, and others are easily soluble in water and fats. Skin damage is definitely promoting the penetration of harmful substances into the body.

Ways neutralizing poisons

Paths of neutralization of poisons are different. The first and main of them are a change in the chemical structure of poisons. Thus, organic compounds in the body are most often hydroxylation, acetylation, oxidation, recovery, cleavage, methylation, which ultimately leads mostly to the emergence of less poisonous and less active in the body of substances.
No less important way to neutralize is to eliminate poison through respiratory organs, digestion, kidneys, sweat and sebaceous glands, skin.

Toxic substances that entered the body have a certain effect, and then released from the body unchanged or in the form of metabolites. The main routes of removal of toxic substances and their metabolites from the body are kidneys, liver, lungs, intestines, etc. Some toxic substances and their metabolites can be released from the body not one, but in several ways. However, for these substances, one of the distribution paths is predominant. This can be shown on the example of the extraction of ethyl alcohol from the body. Most of the ethyl alcohol in the body is metabolized. About 10% is distinguished from the body unchanged with exhaled air. Small amounts of ethyl alcohol are derived from the body with urine, feces, saliva, milk, etc. D. D.Nesky Strapers are distinguished from the body and other toxic substances. So, the chinin is distinguished from the body with urine and through the skin. Some barbiturates are separated from the body with urine and with milk nursing mothers.

Kidney. The kidneys are one of the main organs through which many medicinal and toxic substances and the products of their metabolism are distinguished from the body. Through the kidneys with urine, well-soluble connections are allocated from the body. The smaller the molecular weight of these compounds, the easier they stand out with urine. Substances that can dissociate on ions are better allocated with urine than non-ionic compounds.

The separation of weak organic acids and bases from the body with urine affects urine pH. The dissociation of these real ions depends on the pH of the urine. Weak organic bases are better allocated with urine if it has a sour reaction. This group of substances include chinin, amitriptyline, caffeine, theophylline, acetanilide, antipirine, etc. Organic substances of a weakness character (barbiturates, salicylic acid, some sulfanimide drugs, anticoagulants, etc.) better go to the urine, having a more alkaline reaction, blood than blood than blood. Strong electrolytes, well dissociating on ions, are displayed with urine, regardless of the pH of the medium. Some metals in the videos or complexes with organic substances are also highlighted with urine.

Lipophilic substances are almost not distinguished from the body kidneys. However, most metabolites of these substances are soluble input, and therefore stand out from the body with urine. The selection rate of individual poisonous substances with urine can decrease due to binding to them with plasma proteins.

Liver. The liver plays an important role in the elimination of many toxic substances from the body. The liver occurs the metabolism of a large number of toxic substances, the allocation of which with biliary depends on the size of molecules and molecular weight. With an increase in molecular weights, the speed of highlighting them with biliary increases. These substances are allocated with bile mainly in the form of conjugates. Some conjugates are suspended with hydrolytic bile enzymes.

The bile containing toxic substances enters the intestines from which these substances can again be absorbed into the blood. Therefore, only those substances that are allocated with biliary in the intestine are displayed with the fender of isorganism and are not reused into the blood. Evalents are allocated with the feces, not suction in the blood after oral administration, as well as those that have been separated by the gastric mucosa and the cavity digestive system. This method is distinguished from the body some heavy and alkaline earth metals.

Toxic substances and their metabolites formed in the liver and admitted with bile in the intestine, and then again attempted into the blood, stand out by the kidneys with urine.

Lungs. The lungs are the main organ of removal from the body of volatile liquids and gaseous substances having greater elasticity of the steam pearfri temperature of the human body. These substances easily penetrate blood into the alveoli through their membranes and stand out from the body with exhaled air. In this way, separated from the body in the unchanged form of carbon oxide (II), hydrogen sulfide, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone, benzene, gasoline, some chlorine derivatives of hydrocarbons, as well as volatile metabolites of some poisonous substances (benzene, carbon tetalist, methyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, acetone, etc.). One of these metabolites of these substances is carbon monoxide (IV).

Leather. A number of medicinal and poisonous substances are derived from the body through the skin, mainly through sweat glands. In this way, an arsenic compound and some heavy metals, bromides, iodides, chinin, camphor, ethyl alcohol, acetone, phenol, chlorine derivatives, and others are removed from the body of arsenic and some heavy metals, chlorine derivatives of hydrocarbons and others. Therefore, when solving the question of poisoning, they do not have a practical value.

Milk. Some medicinal and poisonous substances are derived from the body with nursing mothers milk. With mother's milk, ethyl alcohol, acetylsalicylic acid, barbiturates, caffeine, morphine, nicotine, etc.

Cow's milk may contain separate pesticides and some toxic substances that are treated by plants eating animals.

Chlorine

Physical properties. Under normal conditions, chlorine is yellow-green gas with a sharp smell, poisonous. It is 2.5 times heavier than air. In 1 volume of water at 20 degrees. About 2 chlorine volumes dissolves. Such a solution is called chlorine water.

At atmospheric pressure chlorine at -34 degrees. C goes into a liquid state, and at -101 degrees. With hardens.

Chlorine is toxic suffocating gas, if you get into the lungs, it causes a burn of light tissue, choking. An irritating effect on the respiratory tract has about 0.006 mg / l (i.e., two times above the threshold of perception of chlorine smell).

When working with chlorine, you should use protective overalls, gas mask, gloves. For a short time, protect the respiratory organs from the chlorine from entering them can be a rag dressing, moistened with a solution of sodium sulfite Na2SO3 or sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3.

It is known that chlorine has a pronounced generaloxic and irritant effect on the mucous respiratory tract. It can be assumed that those who first have begun working with it may adopt passing changes from the respiratory tract, that is, the adaptation reaction to this substance occurs.

Chlorine - gas with a sharp specific smell, heavier than air, during evaporation it is steel above the ground in the form of a fog, can penetrate into the lower floors and basements of buildings, when entering the atmosphere smoke. Couples are very annoyed by the respiratory organs, eyes, skin. With inhalation of high concentrations, death is possible.

Upon receipt of information about the accident with Akhov respiratory protection means Skin protection (raincoat, cape), leave the area of \u200b\u200bthe accident in the direction indicated in the radio message (television).

Leave the chemical contamination zone It follows, perpendicular to the direction of the wind. At the same time, avoid the transition through tunnels, ravines and hollows - in low places the chlorine concentration is higher. If it is impossible to get out of the danger zone, Stay in the room and make it extra seal: Tightly close the windows, doors, ventilation holes, chimneys, compute the slots in the windows and at the junctions of the frames and climb the top floor floors. Coming out of the danger zone, remove the upper clothes, leave it on the street, take the shower, rinse your eyes and the nasophak. In the appearance of signs of poisoning: peace, warm drink, consult a doctor.

Signs of poisoning chlorom: A sharp pain in the chest, dry cough, vomiting, rubbed in the eyes, tearing, violation of coordination of movements.

Individual protection means: gas masks of all types, gauze bandage, moistened with water or 2% soda solution (1 teaspoon on a glass of water).

Urgent Care : Release the victim from the danger zone (transportation only lying), free from clothing, breaking breathing, abundant drinking 2% solution of soda, washing the eyes, stomach, the nose of the same solution, in the eye - 30% albucidium solution. Dimming the room, dark glasses.

Chemical formula NH3.

Physiochemical properties. Ammonia - colorless gas with a sharp smell of ammonia alcohol, 1.7 times lighter than air, is well soluble in water. Its solubility in water is greater than all other gases: at 20 ° C in one volume of water, 700 ammonia volumes dissolve.

The boiling point of the liquefied ammonia is 33.35 ° C, so even in winter ammonia is in a gaseous state. At a temperature of minus 77.7 ° C ammonia hardens.

When entering the atmosphere from the liquefied state of smokes. The ammonia cloud spreads to the upper layers of the surface layer of the atmosphere.

Unstable ahs. The affecting effect in the atmosphere and on the surface of the objects is preserved for one hour.

Action on the body. On physiological action on the body belongs to the group of substances by suffering and neurotropic actioncapable of inhalation damage to cause toxic edema and severe damage to the nervous system. Ammonia has both local and resorbative effect. Ammonia couples are very annoyed by the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory organs, as well as skin. Cause abundant tear, pain in the eyes, chemical burn Conjunctions and cornea, loss of vision, cough attacks, redness and itchy skin. When contacting liquefied ammonia and its skin solutions arises burning, a chemical burn with bubbles, ulcerations. In addition, liquefied ammonia during evaporation is cooled, and frostbite occurs when contact with the skin various degrees. The smell of ammonia is felt at a concentration of 37 mg / m3. The maximum permissible concentration in the air of the working area of \u200b\u200bthe production premises is 20 mg / m3. Consequently, if the smell of ammonia is felt, then it is already dangerous to work without protection. Zea irritation is manifested when ammonia in air 280 mg / m3, eyes - 490 mg / m3. Under action in very high concentrations, ammonia causes skin defeat: 7-14 g / m3 - erythematous, 21 g / m3 and more - buglese dermatitis. The toxic edema of lungs is developing when ammonia exposed for an hour with a concentration of 1.5 g / m3. The short-term impact of ammonia at a concentration of 3.5 g / m3 and more quickly leads to the development of general toxic effects. The maximum permissible concentration of ammonia in the atmospheric air of settlements is equal to: the average daily 0.04 mg / m3; Maximum one-time 0.2 mg / m3.

Signs of ammonia defeat: abundant tearing, eye pain, loss of vision, parole cough; With skin damage to the chemical burn of 1st or 2nd degree.

Ammonia has a sharp characteristic smell of "Namyarda", causes a strong cough, suffocation, his pairs act strongly annoyingly on the mucous membranes and skin coverings, cause tearing, the contact of ammick with the skin causes frostbite.

Similar information.

There are three ways to receive harmful substances in the body: light, gastrointestinal tract and intact and damaged skin.

In the light of harmful substances penetrate the vapor, gases and dust. In the gastrointestinal tract - most often with dirty hands or in violation of technological operations and the internal regulations; Through the skin penetrate chemicals mainly liquid, oily and tough consistency.

Admission through the lungs is the main and most dangerous path of penetration of harmful substances inside the body. This is explained by a number of reasons. For example, the surface of the pulmonary alveoli is 90-100 m 2, the thickness of the alveolar membrane is 0.001-0.004 mm, so favorable conditions are created for the penetration of gases and vapors into blood.

Substances penetrating the lungs are divided into two large groups. The first group is not reacting pairs and gases (the substances of the aromatic, fatty series and their derivatives). They are not named because or have small chemical activity (such little), or their transformation inside the body is slower than the accumulation of blood (such most). The second group consists of reacting gases and pairs are substances that are well dissolved in body fluids (for example, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, etc.).

Unreacting gases and pairs enter blood through the lungs based on the diffusion law, i.e., due to the difference in partial pressure of gases and vapors in the alveolar air and blood. First, the saturation goes quickly (the pressure difference is large), then slows down, and when partial pressure is aligned, blood saturation is stopped. After removing the victim from the contaminated zone, the gas is desorbed from the blood, too, based on diffusion.

The saturation rate depends on the distribution coefficient or on solubility. Benzole is better dissolved in blood than gasoline. Therefore, under equal conditions, the saturation speed of benzene pairs will be greater than gasoline pairs. The distribution coefficient is equal to the ratio of the concentration of harmful substance in arterial blood To the concentration of it in the alveolar air. Water solubility determines the solubility of gases and vapors in the blood.

Another pattern exists with respect to the absorption (sorption) of the reacting gases, i.e., such that quickly react with the organism. Saturation for them is almost unattainable. Entering the body, they turn into, and here the danger depends on the time of being a person in a polluted atmosphere. Reactive gases are sorbed in various parts of the respiratory tract. For example, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, well soluble in water, are sorbed in the upper respiratory tract, and chlorine, nitrogen oxide, worse than soluble in water, -in alveoli.

The risk of poisoning with dust-like substances is the same as paroch-like.

Penetration of harmful substances inside the body through the gastrointestinal tract is less dangerous. In it, suction conditions are difficult and the suction surface is difficult, so those harmful substances that are well soluble in lipoids are absorbed. But the acidic stomach medium often contributes to the suction of harmful substances. This applies, for example, to lead. Suction of harmful substances takes place mainly in thin guts And only to a small degree in the stomach. The substances that have fallen into the body go into the system of a portal vein associated with the liver, and neutralize.

Harmful substances can also penetrate the body through the skin, sweat, sebaceous glands, hair bags. Through them penetrate substances that are well soluble in fats and lipoids, that is, non-electrolytes (hydrocarbons of aromatic and bold range). Electrolytes, i.e. dissociating in water on the ions of the substance, do not penetrate through the skin. The degree of penetration through the skin depends on the consistency. Liquid substances with high volatility evaporate quickly. Solid and crystalline organic or oily substances can most likely cause poisoning, as they can long linger on the skin.

^ 2.3. Distribution, transformation and selection

harmful substances from the body

By distribution in tissues and penetration into organism cells, chemicals are divided into electrolytes and non-electrolytes.

Neelectrolytes (organic substances) are dissolved in fats and lipoids, and the faster they dissolve in fats, the faster penetrate into the cell. This is explained by the fact that the body's cell shell contains a lot of lipoids.

The distribution of non-electrolytees depends on blood supply. The brain is saturated with non-electrolithols faster than the octopic fat (as the brain is more supplied with blood).

The removal of non-electrolyte also depends on the blood supply, which is more, the fastest harmful substances are removed.

The ability of electrolytes penetrate into the cells of the body is limited and depends on the charge of their surface layer. If the cell surface is charged negatively, it does not miss anions if the cell surface is charged positively - cations. The electrolytes have the property to accumulate in various organs. So, lead compounds, fluorine accumulates in the bones, mercury compounds - in excretory organs (kidney, a fat intestine), manganese compounds in the liver.

The harmful substances entering the body are subjected to a variety of transformations in various chemical reactions). Not applicable to transformations only such chemically inert substances, such as methane, carbon dioxide (they are separated from the body unchanged). Other substances are subjected to all sorts of transformations. An example is the following reactions: benzene is oxidized inside the body to phenols, methyl alcohol is oxidized in formaldehyde and formic acid, ethers are subjected to hydrolysis. Inorganic substances also change inside the body. Thus, lead compounds are deposited in the bones in the form of lead trifhosphate, fluorine compounds in the form of lime (calcium) salts.

The result of the conversion of harmful substances is their neutralization, but there are exceptions (the conversion of methyl alcohol, which was mentioned above).

Harmful substances from the body are distinguished by four paths. The first are light; Through the kidneys, substances are highlighted well soluble in water; through the gastrointestinal tract - poorly soluble in water; Through the skin, sweat glands are distinguished by substances well dissolved in lipoids.

^ 2.4. The nature of the action of harmful substances on the body

All harmful substances have a specific effect on the body. Some of them are characterized by an action at the point of application (acid, alkali, salts of strong acids and bases). Other substances have an electoral action (carbon oxide acts on blood hemoglobin).

Practical interest provides concentrations and doses. Of particular importance is the threshold concentration, which causes the initial signs of the effects of harmful substances into the body. The reasonable definition of threshold concentrations is of great importance, since it is the initial criterion for determining the maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances.

As a basis for the maximum permissible concentration, the threshold concentration is made, installed during long-term exposure (year, half a year). But a correction is taken to this threshold concentration several times depending on the toxicity range. The toxicity range is the difference between the threshold and mortal concentrations. The smaller the toxicity range, the greater the amendment. But thus, a certain extremely allowable concentration is indicative. It is specified with long-year (five-year) observation of the health of working under conditions when MPC is observed.

For hygiene, the establishment of the effect of the effect of harmful substances from the dose, concentration and duration of action is particularly important. For substances that can accumulate in the body, does not matter a concentration, but the duration of action.

but. The relationship between the toxic effect of harmful substances and their chemical structure and physical properties

There is a close relationship between the chemical structure, physical properties and toxic effects of harmful substances.

According to Richardson, the power of narcotic action increases depending on the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. The branching rule binds the narcotic effect of hydrocarbons with the branching of their chains (with an increase in branching, the narcotic effect weakens). The introduction of a hydroxyl group or oxygen in the organic substance molecule enhances the narcotic effect of a harmful substance. The greater the number of multiple bonds in molecules of substance, the greater its biological activity. With increasing disabilities, an irritant effect of substances is enhanced. The chlorine or nitrogen group increases the narcotic effect of the substance.

Their physical properties (volatility, aggregate state, solubility, etc.) play a major role in the nature of harmful substances.