To digest food received into our organism, it is necessary to have substances called digestive enzymes or enzymes. Without them glucose, amino acids, glycerin and fatty acids cannot flow into the cells, since food containing them cannot be clever. The bodies producing enzymes are digestive glands. The liver, pancreas and salivary glands are the main suppliers of enzymes in the human digestive system. In this article, we will examine their anatomical structure in detail, histology and function performed in the body.

What is iron

Some mammalian organs have output ducts, and their main function is to develop and allocate special biologically active substances. These compounds are involved in dissimilating reactions leading to the splitting of food that fell into the oral cavity or duodenum. According to the method of isolation, digestive glands are divided into two types: extended and mixed. In the first case, the enzymes made of output ducts fall on the surface of the mucous membranes. So functions, for example, salivary glands. In another case, the products of secretory activities can flow both in the body cavity and in blood. This principle functions pancreas. We will get acquainted with the structure and functions of digestive glands.

Types of iron

In their way anatomical structure The organs that allocate enzymes can be divided into tubular and alveolar. Thus, the parole salivary glands consist of the smallest output ducts having a type of polek. They are connected to each other and form a single duct passing along the lateral surface. lower jaw and entering the mouth. Thus, the parole of the digestive system and other salivary glands are complex glands of the alveolar structure. In the gastric mucosa, a plurality of tubular type gland is located. They produce both pepsin and chloride acid, disinfecting food lump and preventing it from rotting.

Digestion in the oral cavity

Easy, lifting glands and sublingual salivary glands produce a secret containing mucus and enzymes. They hydrolyze complex carbohydrates, such as starch, as they contain amylase. Splitting products are dextries and glucose. Small salivary glands are located in the mucous part of the oral shell or in the sublimarist layer of lips, sky and cheeks. They differ biochemical composition saliva, in which serum elements are detected, for example, albumin, substances immune system (lysozyme) and serous component. The salivary human digestive glands, distinguish the secret that not only breaks the starch, but also moisturizes the food lump, preparing it to further digestion in the stomach. Salus itself is a colloid substrate. It contains mucin and micellar fibers capable of tying a large amount of salt solution.

Features of the structure and functions of the pancreas

The greatest amount of digestive juices is produced by the pancreas cells, which relates to a mixed type and consists of both acinuses and tubes. The histological structure indicates its connective tissue nature. The parenchyma of the digestive glands is usually covered with a thin sheath and divided either on the slices or contains a variety of output tubes that are combined into a single duct. The endocrine part of the pancreas is represented by secreting cells of several types. Insulin is produced by beta cells, glucagon - alpha cells, then the hormones come directly into the blood. EXCRINE PLOT OF THE BODY Synthesize pancreatic juice containing lipase, amylase and trypsin. In the duct, enzymes fall into the lumen of the duodenum, where the most active digestion of the chimus occurs. Regulation of juice is carried out by the nervous center of the oblong brain, and also depends on the enzymes of gastric juice and chloride acid in the duodenum.

Liver and its value for digestion

No less important role in the processes of splitting complex organic components of food playing the largest iron human organism - Liver. Its cells - hepatocytes are able to produce a mixture of bile acids, phosphatidylcholine, bilirubin, creatinine and salts, called bile. During the period of food mass in the duodenum, part of the bile enters it directly from the liver, part of the gallbladder. During the day, the adult organism produces up to 700 ml of bile, which is necessary for emulsification of fats contained in food. This process is to reduce the surface tension, leading to the sticking of lipid molecules into large conglomerates.

Emulsification is carried out by bile components: fat and bile acids and glycerin alcohol derivatives. As a result, micelles are formed, which are easily cleaved by the pancreatic enzyme - lipase. Enzymes that produce human digestive glands affect each other's activity. Thus, the bile neutralizes the activity of the gastric juice enzyme - pepsin and enhances the hydrolytic properties of pancreatic enzymes: trypsin, lipases and amylases, which split proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

Regulation of enzyme production processes

All metabolic reactions of our body are governed by two: by nervous system And humoral, i.e., with the help of biologically active substances entering blood. Salivation is controlled by both nerve impulses coming from the relevant center in oblong brainAnd conditionally reflexive: at the sight and feel of smell of food.

Functions of the digestive glands: liver and pancreas controls the digestion center located in the hypothalamus. Humoral regulation The discharge of pancreatic juice occurs with the help of biologically active substances secreted by the mucous membrane of the pancreas itself. The excitation, which goes on the parasympathetic branches of the vagus nerve to the liver, cause the selection of bile, and the nerve impulses of the sympathetic department lead to the oppression of berevel and all digestion in general.

The digestive glands include: salivary glands, glands of the stomach, liver, pancreas and bowel gland.

To the glands, which are opened in the oral cavity include small and large salivary glands. Small salivary glands: lip

(glandulae Labayes), pegs ( glandulae Buccales) molar ( glandulae Molares), Sky ( glandulae Palatinae), Pagnaya ( glandulae Linguales) - Located in the thickness of the mucous membrane, lining the oral cavity. Paired large salivary glands are located outside oral cavityBut their ducts open into it. These glands include near-wing, sublard and subband.

Easy iron (glandulaparotidea) It has a conical form. The base of the gland is turned outward, and the vertex is included in the jacial hole. At the top of the iron reaches a zilly arc and an external auditory passage, rear - a predominant process temporal bone, Below is the angle of the lower jaw. Output duct ( ductus Parotideus) goes below the zickie arc by outdoor surface Chewing muscle, then penetrates the penette muscle and opens on the eve of the mouth at the level of the second top of a large indigenous tooth.

Raissed iron (Glandula submandiBularis) Located in the subband neck triangle at the rear edge of the maxillary-speaking muscle, the duct comes out of the gland ( ductus submandibularis),which is enveloped by the rear edge of this muscle, runs along the medial edge of the pylon and opens on the subsidence.

Podium Iron (Glandula Sublingualis) It is located above the maxillary-speaking muscle, under the mucous membrane, forming an approaching fold. Several small ducts open from the gland, opening into the oral cavity along the sub-speaking fold, and a large subyagonal duct, which is either merged with a protocol of the subband, or opens independently next to it on the sublard papilla.

Development. The salivary glands are developing from the epithelium of the oral mucosa by adding it outward in the form of tubes with a mass of lateral branching of the same structure.

Anomalies. There is no interesting anomalies.

Liver (Hierag) - the largest iron, her weight in humans reaches 1500. The liver is located in abdominal cavity, under the diaphragm, in the right hypochondrium. The upper limit on the right medium luminous line is at the level of the 4th intercostal. Then the upper boundary of the liver lowers until the 10th intercostal on the right medium axillary line. On the left, the upper limit of the liver gradually descends from the 5th intercostal on the median chest to the level of attaching the 8th left rib cartilage to the 7th edge. The bottom limit of the liver passes along the edge of the rib arc on the right, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nasty, the liver goes to the back surface of the front abdominal wall. In the liver, high (right) and less (left) shares and two surfaces - a diaphragmal and viscerals are distinguished. On the visceral surface there are gallbladder (vesicafellea.) (bile tank) and liver gate (Porta Hepatis), Through which the gorgeous vein includes hepatic artery and nerves, and the overall liver duct and lymphatic vessels come out. On the visceral surface of the right lobe, square (Lobus Quadratus) and taper (Lobus Caudatus) lolly. The liver to the diaphragm fix a sickle bunch (Lig.Falciforme) and Vernoe bunch (Lig. Coronarium), Which in the edges forms the right and left triangular ligaments (Lig. Triangulare Dextrum EL TRIGULARE SINISTRUM). Round bunch of liver (Lig. Teres Hepatis) - The overgrown bubble vein, starts from the navel, passes on the cutting of a round bundle (Incisura Lig. Teretis), It is included in the lower edge of the sickle ligament and further reaches the gate of the liver. On the rear surface of the right share passes the lower hollow vein, to which the venous bunch is attached (Lig. Venosum) - The overgrown venous duct connecting the fetal vein with the lower hollow vein. The liver performs a protective (barrier) function, it occurs in it the neutralization of the poisonous spree products of proteins and poisonous substancesFormed as a result of the livelihood of microbes in the colon. Poisonous substances in the liver are neutralized and derived from the body with urine and feces. The liver is involved in digestion, highlighting bile. The bile is generated by cells of the liver constantly, and enters the duodenum through the overall bull duct only if there are food in it. When the digestion stops, bile, passing through the bubble duct, accumulates in a gallbladder, where, as a result of suction of water, the concentration of bile increases 7-8 times.

Gall Bubble (Vesica Fellea) Located in a hole on the visceral surface of the liver. It allocate the bottom Fundus Vesicae Felleae), body (Corpus Vesicae Felleae) and shak (Collum Vesicae Felleae), which continues to bubbier (DUCTUS CYSTICUS), Blowing into a common liver duct formed by the merge of the right and left hepatic ducts (DUCTUS HEPATICUS DEXTER ET SINISTER). Common liver duct goes into a common bile duct (Ductus Choledochus)located between the leaflets of the hepatic duodenal bunch of the Kepende from the portal vein and to the right of the overall hepatic artery. The overall bull duct passes behind the upper part of the duodenum and the pancreas head, the intestinal wall, merges with the pancreatic duct and opens on the top of a large duodenal duct.

Development. It is the protrusion of the epithelial layer of the duodenum in the ventral direction. From the very beginning there are two shares, each with its own transfer. Initially, its tubular structure is explicitly expressed, subsequently it smoothed.

The gallbladder and its duct are formed as a result of the protrusion of bile duct.

Anomalies. The most commonly occurs the lurch of the liver, as well as cases of moving the gallbladder into the left furrow of the liver.

Pancreas (Pancreas) Located in the abdominal cavity, behind the stomach at the level of the bodies of the 1-2rd lumbar vertebrae goes left and up to the gate of the spleen. Her mass in an adult is 70-80 g. She is distinguished by the head (Caputpancreatis), body (Corpuspancreatis)and tail (Cauda Pancreatis). Pancreas is an iron outer and internal secretion. Like digestive gland, it produces pancreas juice, which is on the output (Ductus Pancreaticus) It reaches the lumen of the descending part of the duodenum, opens onto its large papilla, after connecting with the overall bile duct.

Development. It is an epithelial grow out of the duodenum. It develops from three adventures: the main (paired), ventral remaining in conjunction with duodenalist With the help of the main duct, and the added, dorsal, connected to the duodenum of the added duct.

Anomalies. Interesting anomalies does not happen.

Digestion in the oral cavity. The digestion process begins in the oral cavity. Here are defined flavoring foods, initial mechanical and chemical processing of food begins. Mechanical treatment of food is grinding, wetting the saliva and the formation of the edible lump. Chemical treatment occurs under the influence of saliva enzymes. Salus is the secret of the salivary glands, has a weakly alkaline reaction and contains in its composition: water - 98.5-99%, inorganic substances - 1-1.5%, enzymes - (bird, maltase) and mucin. Muzin is a protein mucous membrane, which gives saliva viscosity and glues the food lump. In addition, saliva performs a protective function, having a bactericidal substance - lysozyme.

Food is annoying the ending of the pagan nerve and the excitation arising in them is transmitted by this nerve (the branch of the face nerve) into the center of salivation (oblongable brain), from there passes through the centrifugal branches of the facial and language nerve nerves on the salivary glands. Food is delayed in the oily cavity of 15-20 seconds. During this time, there is a splitting of starch to glucose under the influence of podium and moalhaz.

Switching food passes from the oral cavity through a throat and esophagus in the stomach. The mechanics of this process is as follows:

1. Pisch lump (bolus) is sent to the throat. Food or water rolled along the back of the tongue, and the tip presses it up to a solid sky; This should be reduced muscles that pushes a lump into a throat.

2. The lump moves to the esophagus. The esophagus is divided into three functional parts: 1) the upper esophagus sphincter (pharyingsofagal), 2) body and 3) the lower esophageal sphincter (gastroesophagal). For all three parts, its contractile activity is typical and when swallowing.

Digestion in the stomach. In the stomach digestion occurs under the action of gastric juice, in an acidic environment. The composition of the gastric juice includes enzymes (pepsin, chemical, lipase), hydrochloric acid, mucus and other organic and inorganic substances. Under the action of pepsin, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, proteins are split into peptons and albumose intermediates. Hymosin causes the stemming of milk, which is of great importance in the nutrition of children early age. Lipase acts only on emulsified fats and breaks them on glycerin and fatty acids.

The presence of hydrochloric acid activates the effect of enzymes and has a bactericidal effect. The mucus protects the gastric mucosa from mechanical and chemical damage. The amount and composition of the gastric juice are inconsistent, they depend on the nature of the food. Cooking salt, water, extractive substances of vegetables and meat, protein digestion products, spices stimulate, and fat - inhibits the juice.

Motoric stomach. Abbreviations begin and usually amplified in the middle area of \u200b\u200bthe stomach as it moves to the place of transition to the duodenum. These waves, mostly peristaltic, are distributed with a frequency of 3 in 1 min. With the reduction waves, the waves of pressure of different amplitude and duration are connected. Waves I and II type are slow rhythmic waves of different amplitude pressure. The duration of them from 2 to 20 ° C, and they arise with a frequency of 2-4 per minute. It is likely that this pressure is generated by peristaltic abbreviations. Type III consists of complex pressure waves with a duration of about a minute.

Emptying stomach. The rate of promotion of the sworded mass from the stomach into the intestine depends mainly on its physicochemical composition in the stomach and duodenum. Carbohydrates come out of the stomach faster than all, proteins are slower, and the fats remain in the stomach longer.

The consistency of the contents of the stomach also affects the course of evacuation. Large pieces of meat remain in the stomach longer than small. Hypotonic solutions longer are delayed in the stomach than isotonic, and solutions with pH 5,3 or below delay emptying.

The evacuation of the contents of the stomach depends on the interaction of the stomach with a duodenum, but the exact mechanism of this act is unknown. However, several possibilities are called, namely: 1) the activity of the pylorial sphincter, 2) gastrointestinal hormones and 3) coordinated cycles of the activity of the entrance and the proximal part of the duodenum. There are consistent reductions in the entrance (pylorus) and duodenum.

Gastrointestinal hormones - gastrin, secretine and cholecystokinin - inhibit evacuation, but exactly, it is not yet clear. Fat in the intestine tends to slow down the emptying of the stomach, perhaps through secretine.

Digestion in the small intestine. Food, partially digested in the stomach, enters the delicious intestine, where it is completely digested and where the nutrients are absorbed. In the small intestine, food is treated with bile, pancreas and intestinal juices.

P o d zh l u d o ch n s s o k has enzymes: TRIPSIN, Maltaz and Lipase. It has an alkaline reaction.

TRIPSIN splits proteins to amino acids. Lipase splits fats to glycerin and fatty acids. Maltaza splits carbohydrates to glucose.

Well, the liquid of dark brown color, a slightly alkaline reaction, enters the duodenum only during digestion. Breastwood is initiated mainly by fats and extractive meat substances. The bile emulsifies fats and contributes to dissolving in water, enhances the effect of the pancreas enzymes, increases the intestinal motor activity, kills the microbes and, thus, prevents the processes of rotting in the intestine.

K and W E C N S O to be produced by iron mucous membranes of the small intestine and contains the following enzymes: Erepsin, amylase, lactase, lipase, etc. These enzymes are completed by digestion in the intestine. Erepsin splits albumose and peptones to amino acids. Amylaza, lactase split carbohydrates to glucose. Lipase splits fats to glycerin and fatty acids. In the small intestine, mostly ends the digestion process and the suction process of nutrients in blood and lymph occurs. Suction is carried out mainly by the guts. Proteins are absorbed into the blood in the form of amino acids. Of the associated amino acids in tissue cells, proteins specific for this organism are synthesized. Carbohydrates are absorbed into blood in the form of glucose. Glycogen is synthesized from the whisked glucose in the liver and muscles. Fats are absorbed in the form of fatty acids and glycerin, first in the lymphatic capillaries of Village and, bypassing the liver, come on the breast lymphatic duct in the blood. The necessary organisms of fats are synthesized from fatty acids and glycerin.

Waste and undigested food are moving into a fat intestine. Movement helps these processes fine intestine - Waves, or abbreviations, two types, namely segmentation, otherwise denoted as a reduction type I, and peristalistic.

Segmentation, ring-shaped cuts are repeated through fairly correct intervals (about 10 times in 1 min) and serve to mix chimus. Recreation areas are replaced by areas of relaxation, and vice versa.

Motoric Tolstoy Intestine.In the colon there is fermentation and rotting. As a result of the rotation of the proteins, poisonous products (indole, scatle, etc.) are formed, which, after suction, come through a gate vein into the liver, where they are neutralized and derived from the body with urine. All substances beyond fat, in the intestines are absorbed and coming through the system of the portal vein in the liver. In the colon, water and monosaccharides are well absorbed. About 1.3 liters of water containing electrolytes are absorbed daily - the amount is relatively small, but sufficient to form solid fecal masses.

The digested masses are pushed in a thick bowel with a combination of three types of movements, or abbreviations, namely segmentation, multigrilla pushing, peristalistic.

The release of carts is called defecation. Defecation is a reflex act. Caliac masses accumulated at the end sigmid gut, Irritate the receptors located in the intestinal mucous membrane, it causes feces into the rectum, and the irritation of the receptors of the latter - by calling the intestinal emptying. The reflexing center of the defecation is located in the sacratsidate department of the spinal cord and is under the control of the brain.

Regulation of digestion processes. The activity of the digestive system is regulated by nervous and humoral mechanisms.

The nervous regulation of the digestive function is carried out by the food center with the help of conditional and unconditional reflexes, the efferent paths of which are formed by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers. Reflex arcs can be "long" - their closure is carried out in the centers of the head and spinal cord and "short", closed in peripherals in non-organized (extramural) or intraigan (intramural) ganglions of the vegetative nervous system.

The view and smell of food, the time and furnishings of its reception excite the digestive glands with a conditional reflector. Meal, irritating the oral cavity receptors, causes unconditional reflexes, leaning the juice of the digestive gland. This type of reflex influences is especially expressed in the top of the digestive tract. As they remove the participation of reflexes in the regulation of the digestive function decreases. Thus, the reflex effects on salivary glands are largely expressed, slightly less - on the gastric, even less - on the pancreas.

With a decrease in the value of reflex regulation mechanisms, the value of humoral mechanisms increases, especially hormones generated in special endocrine cells of the stomach mucosa, 12-risen and skinny guts, in the pancreas. These hormones are called gastrointestinal. In the thin and thick departments of the intestine, the role of local regulation mechanisms is especially great - local mechanical and chemical irritation increases the integrity of the intestine at the point of action of the stimulus.

Thus, there is a gradient of the distribution of nerve and humoral regulatory mechanisms in the digestive tract, but several mechanisms can regulate the activity of the same organ. For example, the secretion of the gastric juice varies with true reflexes, gastrointestinal hormones and local neuro-humoral mechanisms.

The needs of the body in energy, plastic material and elements necessary for the formation of the inner medium are satisfied with the digestive system.

Executive elements of the digestive system are combined into a digestive tube with compact iron formations adjacent to it.

The regulatory part of the digestive system distinguishes local and central levels. The local level is provided by part of the metacipatic nervous system and the endocrine gastrointestinal system. The central level includes a number of CNS structures from the spinal cord before the bark of large hemispheres.

One of the main conditions of life is the flow of nutrients continuously consumed by cells in the metabolic process. For the body, the source of these substances is food. Digestion system provides splitting nutrients to simple organic compounds (monomers), which come to the inner medium of the body and are used by cells and tissues as a plastic and energy material. In addition, the digestive system provides the required amount of water and electrolytes to the body.

Digestive system, or the gastrointestinal tract, is an argument tube that begins the mouth and ends with an anal hole. It also includes a number of organs that ensure secretion digestive juices (salivary glands, liver, pancreas).

Digestion - This is a combination of processes, during which food processing and splitting of proteins contained in it, fats, carbohydrates and subsequent absorption of monomers in the inner medium of the body are processed in the gastrointestinal tract.

Fig. Human digestive system

The digestive system includes:

• oral cavity with organs and adjacent large salivary glands;
• pharynx;
• esophagus;
• stomach;
• thin and thick intestine;
• pancreas.

The digestive system consists of a digestive tube, the length of which in an adult reaches 7-9 m, and a number of large iron walls located outside of its walls. The distance from the mouth to the posteripro-targeted hole (in a straight line) is only 70-90 cm. A large size difference is related to the fact that the digestive system forms many bends and loops.

The mouth cavity, a throat and esophagus located in the field of human head, neck and chest cavity have a relatively direct direction. In the oral cavity, food comes in a throat, where there is a cross-making and respiratory tract. Then the esophagus is followed by which mixed with saliva fastened in the stomach.

In the abdominal cavity there is a finite departure of the esophagus, stomach, thin, blind, colon, liver, pancreas, in the pelvic area - a straight intestine. In the stomach, the nutritional mass is exposed to the gastric juice for several hours, it is stirred, actively mixed and digested. In the furnace of food, with the participation of many enzymes, continues to digest, resulting in simple compounds that are absorbed into the blood and in lymph. Water is absorbed in the colon, and cavalous masses are formed. Untustrial and unsuitable substances are removed outward through the rear pass.

Salivary glands

The mucous membrane of the oral cavity has numerous small and large salivary glands. Close-up to large glands include: three pairs of large salivary glands - varnish, submandibular and subwage. The submandibular and sub-banding glands allocate the mucous membrane and watery saliva simultaneously, they are mixed glands. Extlive salivary glands allocate only mucous saliva. Maximum selection, for example, on lemon juice can reach 7-7.5 ml / min. In the saliva of a person and most animals there are amylase and maltaz enzymes, at the expense of which the chemical change in food is already in the oral cavity.

The amylase enzyme turns the starch of food into the disaccharide - maltose, and the latter under the action of the second enzyme - the malthasis - turns into two glucose molecules. Although the saliva enzymes have high activity, the full splitting of the starch in the oral cavity does not occur, since food is in the mouth only 15-18 p. The saliva reaction is usually weakly alkaline or neutral.

Esophagus

The wall of the esophagus is three-layer. The middle layer consists of developed cross-striped and smooth muscles, with a reduction in which food is pushed into the stomach. Reducing the musculature of the esophagus creates peristaltic waves, which, arising in the upper part of the esophagus, are distributed over the entire length. At the same time, the muscles of the upper third of the esophagus are consistently reduced, and then smooth muscles in the lower departments. When food passes through the esophagus and stretches it, there is a reflex disclosure of the entrance to the stomach.

The stomach is located in the left hypochondrium, in the opposite region and is an expansion of the digestive tube with well-developed muscle walls. Depending on the digestion phase, its form may change. The length of the empty stomach is about 18-20 cm, the distance between the walls of the stomach (between large and small curvature) is 7-8 cm. Moderately filled stomach has a length of 24-26 cm, the greatest distance between large and low curves 10-12 cm. Adult stomach capacity The person varies depending on the adopted food and liquid from 1.5 to 4 liters. The stomach during the swallowing act relaxes and remains relaxed throughout the entire reception time. After meals, the condition of the increased tone comes, necessary to start the process of mechanical processing of food: chimney and mixing chimus. This process is carried out at the expense of peristaltic waves, which approximately 3 times a minute occur in the region of the esophageal sphincter and with a speed of 1 cm / s applied towards the exit to the 12-pans. At the beginning of the digestion process, these waves are weak, but as the end of the digestion in the stomach, they increase both in the intensity and frequency. As a result, a small portion of Himus is seen to the outlet of the stomach.

The inner surface of the stomach is covered with a mucous membrane forming a large number of folds. It contains glands that highlight gastric juice. These glands consist of the main, addition and shell cells. The main cells produce gastric juice enzymes, cladding - hydrochloric acid, added - muco-shaped secret. Food is gradually impregnated with gastric juice, mixed and crushed while reducing the muscles of the stomach.

Gastric juice - a transparent colorless liquid having a sour reaction due to the presence in the stomach of hydrochloric acid. It contains enzymes (proteases), splitting proteins. The main protease is pepsin, which is allocated by cells in inactive form - pepsinogen. Under the influence of hydrochloric acid, pepsinagep turns into pepsin, which cleaves proteins to polypeptides of different complexity. Other proteases have a specific effect on the gelatin and milk protein.

Under the influence of lipase, fats are split into glycerin and fatty acids. Gastric lipase can only act on emulsified fats. Of all food products, only milk contains emulsified fat, so only it is cleavage in the stomach.

In the stomach, the splitting of starch began in the oral cavity under the influence of saliva enzymes. They act in the stomach until the food lump is soaked with acidic gastric juice, since hydrochloric acid ceases to effect these enzymes. In humans, a significant part of the starch is split by the bird saliva in the stomach.

In the gastric digestion, hydrochloric acid plays an important role that activates pepsinogen to pepsin; causes the swelling of protein molecules, which contributes to their enzymatic cleavage, contributes to the buckling of milk to casein; It has a bactericidal action.

During the day, 2-2.5 liters of gastric juice is released. An empty stomach is secreted by a small amount of it containing predominantly mucus. After receiving food, secretion gradually increases and keeps on relatively high level 4-6 h

The composition and amount of gastric juice depend on the number of food. The greatest amount of gastric juice is released on protein food, less - on carbohydrate, and even less - on fat. Normally, gastric juice has a sour reaction (pH \u003d 1.5-1.8), which is caused by hydrochloric acid.

Small intestine

The small intestine of the person begins on the gastric gatekeeper and is divided into 12-rings, skinny and iliac. The length of the delicate intestine of an adult reaches 5-6 m. The shortest and wide - 12-bunch gut (25.5-30 cm), skinny - 2-2.5 m, iliac - 2.5-3.5 m. Thickness The small intestine is constantly decreasing, at its turn. The small intestine forms a loop, which are covered in front with a large gland, and from the top and from the sides are limited to the colon. IN thin intestine Chemical processing of food and suction of products of its splitting are continuing. Mechanical mixing and food advancement in the direction of the colon occurs.

The wall of the small intestine is typical for gastrointestinal tract The structure: the mucous membrane, the submucosal layer, in which the clusters of lymphoid tissue, glands, nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels are located, the muscular shell, and the serous shell.

Muscular shell consists of two layers - inner circular and outdoor - longitudinal, separated by layer loose connective tissuein which are located nervous plexus, blood and lymphatic vessels. Due to these muscular layers, mixing and promotion of intestinal content towards the output occurs.

Smooth, moistled serous envelope facilitates the glide of indoors relative to each other.

The glands perform a secretory function. As a result of complex synthetic processes, they produce a mucus that protects the mucous membrane from injuries and the action of secreted enzymes, as well as various biologically active substances and primarily the enzymes needed for digestion.

The mucous membrane of the small intestine forms numerous circular folds, due to which the absorption surface of the mucous membrane increases. The size and number of folds decreases towards the colon. The surface of the mucous membrane is littered with intestinal villings and crypts (deepening). Pork (4-5 million) with a length of 0.5-1.5 mm is carried out by wear digestion and suction. Porks are increasing mucous membranes.

In ensuring the initial stage of digestion, a large role belongs to the processes occurring in a 12-risen intestine. On an empty stomach of its contents has a weakly alkaline reaction (pH \u003d 7.2-8.0). When moving into the intestine of portions of acid content of the stomach, the reaction of the contents of the 12-rosewood is becoming acidic, but then at the expense of alkaline secrets of the pancreas, the small intestine and bile becomes neutral. In the neutral medium, the effect of gastric enzymes cease.

A person of the pH of the contents of the 12rred intestine ranges within 4-8.5. The higher its acidity, the greater the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal secret is distinguished, the evacuation of the contents of the stomach in the 12-risen intestine and its contents in the kitchen are slowed down. As it moves along the 12thist, food content is mixed with secrets incoming in the intestine, the enzymes of which are already in the 12-risen intestine hydrolysis of nutrients.

The pancreas juice enters the 12-risk not constantly, but only during meals and for some time after that. The amount of juice, its enzymatic composition and the duration of the selection depends on the quality of the food received. The greatest amount of the pancreas is highlighted on meat, the least for fat. During the day, 1.5-2.5 liters of juice with an average speed of 4.7 ml / min is released.

The gallbladder duct opens in the lumen of the 12-ross. The selection of bile occurs 5-10 minutes after meals. Under the influence of bile, all the enzymes of the intestinal juice are activated. Bile enhances the intestinal motor activity, contributing to stirring and moving food. In the 12-rosenum occurs digestion of 53-63% of carbohydrates and proteins, fats are digested in smaller quantities. In the next department of the digestive tract - a small intestine - further digestion continues, but to a lesser extent than in a 12-risen intestine. Basically, the suction process is underway. The final splitting of nutrients occurs on the surface of the small intestine, i.e. On the same surface where suction occurs. Such splitting of nutrients is called an onset or contact digestion, in contrast to a long digestion, which is happening in the cavity of the digestive channel.

In the small intestine, the most intensive suction occurs after 1-2 hours after meals. The absorption of monosaccharides, alcohol, water and mineral salts occurs not only in the small intestine, but also in the stomach, although to a much lesser extent than in the small intestine.

Colon

The thick intestine is a finite part of the human digestive tract and consists of several departments. It is considered to be a blind intestine, on the border of which a small intestine falls into the colon in the colon.

The thick intestine is divided into the blind with a worm-like process, an upward rim, transverse hatch, downward hazelnaya, sigmoid rim and straight. Its length ranges from 1.5-2 m, the width reaches 7 cm, then the colon gradually decreases to 4 cm in the downward colon.

The content of the small intestine passes into thick through a narrow sliding hole, located almost horizontally. At the site of the flow of the small intestine, there is a complex anatomical device - the valve equipped with a muscular circular sphincter and two "lips". This valve, closing a hole, has a kind of funnel facing its narrow part into the lumen of the blind intestine. The valve periodically opens, passing the contents by small portions into the colon. With the increase in pressure in the blind intestine (with stirring and moving food) the "lips" of the valve are closed, and access from the small intestine is terminated. Thus, the valve prevents the thumbnail of the containment of the colon in thin. The length and width of the surface of the intestine is approximately equal (7-8 cm). From the bottom wall of the blind intestine, a worm-shaped process (Appendix) is departed. Its lymphoid fabric is the structure of the immune system. The blind intestine is directly moving into an upward hazard, then a cross rim, descending hatch, sigmoid and straight, which ends rear aisle (anus). The length of the rectum is 14.5-18.7 cm. In front of the rectum in its wall in men in men to seed bubbles, seed-haired ducts and a section of the bottom of the bladder bottom, even lower - to prostate gland, Women have a straight intestine on the front borders with the back of the vagina on all its length.

The whole process of digestion in an adult lasts 1-3 days, of which the most of them fall on the stay of food residues in the colon. Her motility provides a tank function - the accumulation of content, suction of a series of substances, mainly water, promotion, formation kALOV MASS. And their removal (defecation).

W. healthy man Food mass after 3-3.5 hours after taking begins to enter the colon, which is filled in 24 hours and completely emptied in 48-72 hours.

In the thick intestine, glucose, vitamins, amino acids produced by the intestinal cavity bacteria, up to 95% of water and electrolytes are absorbed.

The contents of the blind intestine makes small and long-term movements in one, then in the other side due to slow contraction of the intestine. For the colon is characterized by a reduction in several types: small and large pendulum, peristaltic and antiperistalistic, peristalistic. The first four types of abbreviations provide mixing the contents of the intestine and increase the pressure in its cavity, which contributes to the concentration of the content by suction of water. Strong permanent reductions occur 3-4 times a day and promote intestinal content to the sigmoid intestine. The wave-like cuts of the sigmoid colon mix the carte masses into the rectum, the stretch of which causes nerve impulses, which are transmitted by nerves into the center of defecation in spinal cord. From there, the impulses are sent to the sphincher of the posterior hole. The sphincter relaxes and is reduced arbitrarily. The center of defecation in children of the first years of life is not controlled by the cerebral cortex.

The thick intestine is abundantly populated by microflora. Macroorganism and its microflora constitute a single dynamic system. The dynamism of the endoecological microbial biocenosis of the digestive tract is determined by the number of microorganisms received in it (about 1 billion microbes per day are permafected), the intensity of their reproduction and death in the digestive tract and remove microbes from it in the composition of the feces (a person stands out for a day 10 12 -10 14 microorganisms).

Each of the departments of the digestive tract has a number characteristic of it and a set of microorganisms. Their number in the oral cavity, despite the bactericidal properties of saliva, large (I0 7 -10 8 per 1 ml of oral fluid). The contents of the stomach of a healthy person on an empty stomach thanks bactericidal properties The pancreas is often sterile. In the contents of the colon, the number of bacteria is maximally, and in 1 g of a fere of a healthy person contains 10 billion or more microorganisms.

The composition and number of microorganisms in the digestive tract depends on endogenous and exogenous factors. The first is the effect of the mucous membrane of the digestive channel, its secrets, motility and microorganisms themselves. To the second - the nature of the food, the factors of the external environment, reception antibacterial drugs. Exogenous factors affect directly and indirectly through endogenous factors. For example, the reception of this or that food changes the secretory and motor activity of the digestive tract, which forms its microflora.

Normal microflora - eubiosis - performs a number of the most important functions for macroorganism. Its participation in the formation of the organism's immunobiological reactivity is extremely important. Eubiosis protects the macroorgapism from the introduction and reproduction of pathogenic microorganisms in it. Violation of normal microflora during the disease or as a result of long-term administration of antibacterial drugs often entails complications caused by stormy reproduction in the intestines of yeast, staphylococcus, a protest and other microorganisms.

The intestinal microflora synthesizes vitamins to and group B, which partially cover the need for the body in them. Microflora synthesize other substances important for the body.

Bacteria enzymes cleavely undigested in the small intestine cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins, and the formed products are absorbed from the intestines and are included in the exchange of the body.

In this way, normal microflora The intestines not only participate in the ultimate link of digestive processes and carries a protective function, but from the dietary fiber (a vegetable material iniquity, pectin, etc.) produces a range of important vitamins, amino acids, enzymes, hormones and other nutrients.

Some authors allocate the heat generating, energy-forming and stimulating functions of the thick bowel. In particular, G.P. Malakhov notes that microorganisms dwelling in the thick intestine, with their development allocate energy in the form of heat, which warms venous blood and adjacent internal organs. And formed in the intestine during the day, according to various sources, from 10-20 billion to 17 trillion microbes.

Like all living beings, microbes have a glow - bioplasm around them, which charges water and electrolytes, suction in the thick intestine. It is known that the electrolytes are one of the best batteries and energy carriers. These energy-saturated electrolytes along with blood flow and lymphs are distributed throughout the body and give their high energy potential to all body cells.

Our body has special systems that are stimulated by a variety of environmental impacts. Through mechanical irritation, the soles of the foot stimulate all vital organs; Through sound oscillations, special zones are stimulated on the ear shell associated with the whole organism, the light irritation through the iris, and the entire body also stimulates the entire body and diagnostics are underway, and on the skin there are certain sections that are associated with internal organs, the so-called zones of Zakharin-HEZA.

The large intestine has a special system by which it stimulates the entire body. Each section of the large intestine stimulates separate organ. When the diverticulus is filled with the food casket, it is violently begin to multiply microorganisms, highlighting the energy in the form of bioplasm, which acts stimulating into this area, and through it the organ associated with this site. If this area is clogged with wheel stones, then there is no stimulation, and the extinction of the function of this organ begins slowly, then the development of specific pathology. Particularly often, malicious sediments are formed in places of folds of the thick bowel, where the promotion of the carts slows down (the place of the transition of the small intestine into thick, ascending bending, downward bending, bending the sigmoid colon). The place of transition of the small intestine into thick stimulates the nasopharynk mucosa; bending - thyroid gland, liver, kidneys, gallbladder; Downward - bronchi, spleen, pancreas, the bends of the sigmoid gut - ovaries, bladder, genitals.

Anatomy and physiology of digestive glands

SALIVARY GLANDS

In the oral cavity there are large and small salivary glands.

Three large saliva glands:

Easy iron(Glandula Parotidea)

Her inflammation is vapotitis (viral infection).

The largest salivary iron. Mass of 20-30 grams.

It is located below and in front of the ear shell (on the lateral surface of the lower jaw branch and the rear edge of the chewing muscle).

The withdrawal duct of this gland opens on the eve of the mouth at the level of the second top of the prayer. The secret of this gland is protein.

Raissed glasses(Glandula submandiBularis)

Weight of 13-16 grams. Locked in the subband, lower than the maxillary muscle. Its withdrawal duct opens on the sublard papilla. Secret of the gland mixed - protein - mucous.

Podium Iron(Glandula sublingualis)

The mass of 5 grams is located under the tongue on the surface of the maxillary-speaking muscle. Its withdrawn duct opens on a pile under the tongue together with the protocol of the subsidiary gland. Secret of the gland mixed - protein - mucous with a predominance of mucus.

Small salivary glands The amount of 1 - 5 mm is located across the oral cavity: lip, pebble, molar, pagan salivary glands (most of the sky and lip).

Saliva

The mixture of the secret of all salivary glands in the oral cavity is called saliva.

Saliva is the digestive juice that is produced by salivary glands, works in the oral cavity. During the day, a person stands out from 600 to 1500 ml of saliva. The saliva reaction is slobs.

The composition of saliva:

1. Water - 95-98%.

2. Salyun enzymes:

- amylase - splits polysaccharides - glycogen, starch to Dextrin and Maltose (disaccharide);

- maltaza - splits maltose up to 2 glucose molecules.

3. Slisaded protein - muzin.

4. Bactericidal substance - lizozyme (enzyme that destroys the cell wall of bacteria).

5. Mineral salts.

In the oral cavity there is a short time, and the splitting of carbohydrates does not have time to end. The action of saliva enzymes ends in the stomach when the food lump is soaked in gastric juice, while the activity of saliva enzymes in the acidic stomach environment is amplified.

Liver ( hepar. )

The liver is the largest iron, red - brown, its weight is about 1500 g. The liver is located in the abdominal cavity, under the diaphragm, in the right hypochondrium.

Functions of the liver :

1) is the digestive gland, forms bile;

2) participates in metabolism - in it glucose turns into a reserve carbohydrate - glycogen;

3) participates in blood formation - blood cells die in it and plasma proteins are synthesized - albumin and protuberine;

4) neutralizes poisonous decay products that come with blood and the products of the brush of the colon;

5) is a blood depot.

In the liver allocate:

1. Shares: large right (in her there is a square and taper lobe) And less left;

2. Over nosta : diaphragmal and visceral.

On visceral surface are located bile bubble (bile tank) and gate liver . Through the gate enter: Passion vein, hepatic artery and nerves, and out out: Common liver duct, hepatic vein and lymphatic vessels.

Unlike other organs in the liver, in addition to arterial blood, it flows through a muster vein deoxygenated blood from the unpaired gastrointestinal tract. The largest is the right share, separated from the left supporting sick-shaped ligament which moves with a diaphragm to the liver. Behind a sickle bunch connects to vernoy ligament which is a peritone duplication.

On visceral surfaceliver visible:

1 . Furrows - Two sagittal and one transverse. The plot between sagittal furrows is divided by a transverse furrow on two plots :

a) front - square share;

b) rear - tailed share.

In the front of the right sagittal furrows lies the gallbub. In the back of it, the lower hollow vein. Left sagittal furridge contains round bunch of liverWhich before birth was an umbilical vein.

The transverse furrow is called gate of the liver.

2. Pressure - renal, adrenal, seeding - intestinal and 12-hand - intestinal

Most of the liver is covered with peritoneal (mesoperitonial location of the organ), except for the rear surface adjacent to the diaphragm. The surface of the liver is smooth, covered with a fibrous shell - glisson capsule. Interlayers of connective tissue inside the liver shares her parenchyma on dolki. .

In layers between slices are located interdolt branches of portal veins, interdollastic branches of the bicker artery, as well as interdolkovoy bile ducts. They form a portal zone - Hepatic triad .

Mesh liver capillaries are formed endotheliocital cellsbetween which lie star reticulocytes,they are capable absorbing substances circulating in it, capture and digest bacteria. Blood capillaries in the center of the slices fall into central Vienna. Central veins merge and form 2 - 3 hepatic veinswho fall into lower hollow vein. Blood in 1 hour passes several times through the liver capillaries.

Salves consist of hepatic cells - hepatocyto located in the form of beams. Hepatocytes in hepatic beams are located in two rows, with each hepatocyte one side contact with the lumen of the gall capillary, and the other with the wall of the blood capillary. Therefore, the secretion of hepatocytes is carried out in two directions.

From the right and left lobe of the liver bile reaches right and left liver ductswho are combined in common liver duct.. It connects with a gallbladder duct, forming common bullsductwhich takes place in a small gland and, together with the pancreatic duct, opens on a large duodenal pile of a 12-rosewood.

Bile It is generated by hepatocytes continuously and accumulates in the bustling bubble. Bile has an alkaline reaction, it consists of bile acids, bile pigments, cholesterol and other substances. A person forms a person from 500 to 1200 ml of bile. Bile activates many enzymes and especially the lipase of the pancreas and intestinal juice, emulsifies fats, i.e. Increases the surface of the interaction of enzymes with fat, it also enhances the intestinal peristalsis and has a bactericidal action.

Bile bubble (Biliaris, Vesica Fellea)

Bile storage tank. It has a pear shape. Capacity 40-60 ml. In the gallbladder distinguish: body, bottom and cervical. The neck continues B. cystic ductwhich connects with a shared liver duct and forms a common bull duct. The bottom goes to the front abdominal wall, and the body is to the lower part of the stomach, duodenal and transverse colon.

The wall consists of mucous membranes and muscle shells and covered with peritoneum. The mucosa forms a spiral fold in the neck and bubble duct, the muscular shell consists of smooth muscle fibers.

PANCREAS ( pancreas. )

Inflammation of the pancreas - pancreatitis .

Pancreas is located behind the stomach. Weight 70- 80 gr., Length 12-16 cm.

It is distinguished:

Surfaces: front, rear, bottom;

C. asti : Head, body and tail.

In relation to the peritoneum, the liver is located extraperitoneal (covered with peritoneum from the front and partially from the bottom)

Proactic :

- head- I-III Lumbar vertebra;

- body- I Lumbar;

- tail - XI-XII chest vertebra.

Behind The glands lie: Right Vienna and the diaphragm; in the top edge - spleen vessels; head surrounds 12-tupest intestine.

Pancreas is an iron mixed secretion.

As an exocrine iron (iron of external secretion) , it produces pancreas, which through excretory duct stands out in the duodenum. The output duct is formed when merging intradolla and interdolkovoy ducts.The output duct merges with the overall bile duct and opens on a large duodenal papilla, in its final department it has a sphincter - the sphincter ODI. Through the head of the gland passes additional dashingwhich opens on a small duodenal papilla.

Pancreatic (pancreatic) juice It has an alkaline reaction, it contains enzymes, splitting proteins, fats and carbohydrates:

- TRIPSIN and chimothrixin Splits proteins to amino acids.

- lipasa Splits fats to glycerol and fatty acids.

- amylase, lactase, maltaz, blur starch, glycogen, sucrose, maltose and lactose to glucose, galactose and fructose.

The pancreas begins to stand out 2-3 minutes after the start of food intake and continues from 6 to 14 hours, depending on the composition of food.

Like endocrine iron (Iron internal secretion) , pancreas has the islands of Langerhans, the cells of which produces hormones - insulin and glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of glucose in the body - glucagon increases, and insulin reduces blood glucose content. With pancreatic hypofunction develops diabetes .