According to some celebrities, doctors and self-styled health experts, the alkaline healing system eliminates the need for any medical treatment... According to scientific research, everything is much more complicated. While the alkaline environment is actually conducive to health, it should not be considered a panacea for all diseases. Try the alkaline health system and you will be able to judge for yourself how effective this diet is.

Steps

Alkaline diet

Drink alkaline water. Doctors and nutritionists advise drinking plenty of water. Nutritionists who recommend an alkaline diet are advised to drink alkaline water. Some research suggests that alkaline water can help slow bone loss, but more research is needed to confirm this fact.

• Alkaline water will not harm your body, so be sure to use alkaline water.

1. Include a variety of alkaline foods in your diet. The above tips are the fundamental principles of this nutritional system. In addition to the products mentioned above, include the following options in your diet:

   • nuts and seeds: almonds, chestnuts, pine nuts, pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds;
   • protein sources: tofu, soy, millet, tempeh, whey protein;
   • spices and seasonings: sea ​​salt, chili, curry, mustard, ginger, cinnamon, stevia;
   • dried fruits: dates, raisins, figs.

2. Reduce your intake of oxygenated foods. Although many people skip meat, dairy, and eggs right away when they start on an alkaline diet, there are a number of other foods that should be avoided as well. In addition to meat, dairy products and eggs exclude from your diet following products:

   • cereal products: pasta, rice, bread, cereals, crackers, spelled and so on;
   • processed foods: sugary / fatty snacks, sodas, desserts, jams, jellies, and so on;
   • some fruits and vegetables: store juices, blueberries, coconut flakes, olives, plums, prunes.

3. 80/20 is the formula for alkaline diet success. This means that 80 percent of your diet should be alkaline and 20 percent acidic. You should not only eat alkaline foods if you are following this diet. Stick to an 80/20 ratio in your diet; 80% of the foods should fit your alkaline diet plan, the remaining 20% ​​may be "forbidden" foods.

   • You can choose products for your diet yourself. For example, you can try planning each meal so that about 20% of your calories come from alkaline foods. Alternatively, you can try this diet most of the time, with only one “break” in every fifth meal.

4. Don't fall into the trap of scammers. Often scammers claim that in order to properly follow an alkaline diet, it is important to buy special (usually expensive) foods. This is a fraud. When compiling the menu, refer to the list of products mentioned above. Buy regular groceries in stores instead of buying questionable substitutes.

   Lifestyle

   1. Try to minimize stressful situations. Stress is either a cause or a consequence of high acid balance... However, this connection has not been confirmed by science. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that a stress-free life is healthy life... If you try to reduce the stress in your life, you can prevent the development of many diseases, such as heart disease.

      Rest after exercise. Classes physical exercise essential for your well-being. However, if you experience muscle soreness after exercising at the gym, reduce the intensity of your training, as vigorous exercise can lead to a build-up of lactic acid in the muscles. Reduce the intensity of your workouts if you start to experience muscle soreness. The body needs time to remove the breakdown products of lactic acid and restore damaged tissues; If you do not give your body enough time to recover, painful cramps cannot be avoided.

      • If you are following an intense training schedule, try working out different muscle groups on different days. This is necessary so that each group has the opportunity to rest. For example, if you are working on a muscle group of the upper limbs on Monday, on Tuesday you can work on the lower part of your body.

   2. Limit alcohol, tobacco, caffeine and drug use. Nutritionists say that these substances increase acidity. This may be true, but when it comes to caffeine, this statement sounds highly dubious. Nevertheless, this advice is worth listening to - for sure, following this rule will have a beneficial effect on your health. By consuming the aforementioned substances, you can face serious health problems.

   Common misconceptions

   Do not believe the claim that lye cures all diseases. Some nutritionists believe that an alkaline diet can prevent serious health problems such as cancer. There is no less for now not there is scientific evidence for this claim. If you have serious health problems, not Consider an alkaline diet a cure-all. Get qualified medical attention.

   • In support of the above hypothesis, nutritionists cite the fact that some cancer cells grow faster in acidic solutions. However, these studies were carried out in test tubes, not in the human body. Agree, there is a huge difference between conditions in a test tube and in a human body. Therefore, it is impossible to say with complete certainty how a cancer tumor will behave in an alkaline environment in a human body.

Normally, the pH of human blood is maintained in the range of 7.35-7.47, despite the entry into the blood of acidic and basic metabolic products. The constancy of the pH of the internal environment of the body is a necessary condition for the normal course of life processes. Blood pH values ​​outside these limits indicate significant disturbances in the body, and values ​​below 6.8 and above 7.8 are incompatible with life.

Foods that reduce acidity and are alkaline (basic) contain metals (potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, and calcium). They are usually high in water and low in protein. In contrast, acid-forming foods are usually high in protein and low in water. Non-metallic elements are usually found in protein.

High acidity slows down digestion

In our digestive tract, the pH value takes on a wide variety of values. This is necessary for sufficient breakdown of food components. For example, our saliva in a calm state is slightly acidic. If more saliva is released during intense chewing, the pH changes and it becomes slightly alkaline. At this pH, alpha-amylase, which starts the digestion of carbohydrates already in the mouth, is particularly effective.

An empty stomach has a slightly acidic pH. When food enters the stomach, stomach acid is secreted to digest the proteins it contains and kill germs. Because of this, the pH of the stomach becomes more acidic.

Bile and pancreatic secretions, having a pH of 8, give an alkaline reaction. These digestive juices require a neutral to slightly alkaline intestinal environment to function optimally.

The transition from the acidic environment of the stomach to the alkaline intestine occurs in the duodenum. So that the intake of large masses from the stomach (with abundant food) does not make the environment in the intestine acidic, the duodenum, with the help of a powerful annular muscle, the pylorus of the stomach, regulates the tolerance and amount of stomach contents allowed into it. Only after the secretions of the pancreas and gallbladder have sufficiently neutralized the "sour" food gruel, a new "entry from above" is allowed.

Excess acids lead to illness

If a lot of acid is involved in the metabolism, the body tries to eliminate this excess. different ways: through the lungs - by exhaling carbon dioxide, through the kidneys - with urine, through the skin - with sweat and through the intestines - with feces. But when all possibilities are exhausted, acids accumulate in connective tissue... Connective tissue in naturopathy refers to the tiny spaces between individual cells. Through these slots, the entire supply and discharge takes place, as well as a full-fledged information exchange between cells. Here, in the connective tissue, acidic metabolic waste becomes a strong hindrance. They gradually turn this tissue, sometimes called the "primeval sea" of the body, into a real garbage dump.

Saliva: long lasting digestion

With coarse food, mixing of food gruel with gastric juice is very slow. Only after an hour or two does the pH inside the gruel drop below 5. However, at this time in the stomach, the digestion of saliva by alpha-amylase continues.

Acids accumulated in connective tissue act as foreign bodies, creating a constant risk of inflammation. The latter can take the form of various diseases; the consequences of acidic metabolic deposits in the connective tissue are: muscle "rheumatism", fibromyalgia syndrome, as well as arthrosis. A strong deposition of toxins in the connective tissue is often visible with the naked eye: it is cellulite. This word does not only mean the typical "orange peel" for women on the buttocks, thighs and shoulders. Even the face can look “worn out” due to the deposition of toxins.

Over-oxidation of metabolism also negatively affects the fluidity of the blood. Red blood cells, passing through the peroxidized tissue, lose their elasticity, stick together and form small clots, the so-called "coin columns". Depending on the vessels in which these small blood clots appear, various ailments and disorders occur: myocardial infarction, cerebral hemorrhage, temporary disorders of cerebral circulation or local circulation in the lower extremities.

Osteoporosis is a consequence of the over-oxidation of the body, which is only now being realized. In contrast to bases, acids cannot be easily excreted from the body. They must first be balanced, "neutralized". But in order for the acid with its pH to move to the neutral region, it needs an antagonist, a base that binds the acid.

When the capacity of the body's buffer system has been exhausted, it introduces mineral salts with an alkaline reaction, primarily calcium salts, to neutralize acids. The main reserve of calcium in the body is bones. It is, as it were, a quarry of the organism, from where it can extract calcium in case of over-oxidation. With a tendency to osteoporosis, it makes no sense to focus only on supplying the body with calcium, without having achieved the acid-base balance.

Chronic acid overloading of the body often manifests itself in the form of thin transverse cracks in the tongue.

Over-oxidation protection

There are two ways to protect the body from over-acidification: either by limiting the intake of acid-containing foods, or by stimulating the excretion of acids.

Nutrition. The principle of acid-base balance must be observed in the diet. However, a slight overweight of reasons is recommended. For normal metabolism, we need acids, but let acid-containing food simultaneously serve as a supplier of many other vital substances, such as complete flour or dairy products. Which of the foods contain acids and which are bases will be discussed below.

Drink. The kidneys are one of the main excretory organs through which acids are excreted. However, acids can only leave the body when a sufficient amount of urine is produced.

Traffic. Physical activity promotes the removal of acids with sweat and respiration.

Alkaline powder... In addition to the aforementioned measures, valuable alkaline mineral salts can be administered to the body in the form of an alkaline powder, which is produced, in particular, in pharmacies.

Acidic, alkaline and neutral foods

Which foods are acidic and which are alkaline?

Acidic foods

Metabolic acid is provided by so-called acid suppliers. These are, for example, foods containing protein such as meat, fish, cheese, cottage cheese, and legumes like peas or lentils. Natural coffee and alcohol also belong to acid suppliers.

The so-called base eaters also have an acidic effect. These are foods that the body has to spend valuable bases to break down. The most famous "eaters of grounds" - sugar and its processed products: chocolate, ice cream, sweets etc. The bases also absorb white flour products - White bread, confectionery and pasta, as well as solid fats and vegetable oils.

Metabolic Acid Suppliers: meat, sausage, fish, seafood and crustaceans, dairy products (cottage cheese, yogurt and cheese), grain and cereal products (bread, flour), legumes, Brussels sprouts,artichokes , asparagus, natural coffee, alcohol (primarily liqueurs), egg white.

Eaters of bases that cause over-acidification of the body: white sugar, confectionery, chocolate, ice cream, grains and cereals such as bread, flour, noodles, canned food, ready-to-eat foods, "fast food", lemonade.

Alkaline foods

The bases are also spent on the digestion of grain products, cottage cheese and yogurt. The latter, however, supply the body with vital important vitamins and trace elements.

Alkaline products are, in particular,

• potato,
• goat and soy milk,
• cream,
• vegetables,
• ripe fruits,
• leaf salad,
• ripe fruits,
• greens,
• cereals,
• egg yolk,
• nuts,
• herbal teas.
• mineral alkaline waters

Neutral food

Neutral products include

• cold pressed vegetable oils,
• butter,
• water.

Balanced diet

For balanced nutrition Your diet should always combine acidic and alkaline foods.

A breakfast of white bread, jam, sausage and natural coffee can be your first acid attack of the day for your metabolism. The following combination is more useful and less burdensome for metabolism: a small portion of raw grain muesli with milk and fruit, a slice of coarse grain bread with butter and green curd, herbal or not too strong black tea.

For lunch, instead of the usual combination of meat and noodles, canned vegetables and a dessert containing sugar, you can eat for the first alkaline vegetable soup, a small portion of meat, fish, poultry or game with potatoes, vegetable stew and fruit cottage cheese - from them the body will retain its good shape longer. As for acidic foods, you should choose those that do not contain "empty" calories, but biologically valuable.

Alkaline soups... As simple as it is effective, the ability to introduce valuable bases into the body is alkaline soups. To prepare them, boil about a cup of finely chopped vegetables in 0.5 liters of water. After about 10 minutes, crush the vegetables into puree. Add cream, sour cream and fresh herbs to taste. Many vegetables are suitable for alkaline soup: potatoes, carrots, onions, celery, zucchini, fennel, broccoli. Calling on your imagination to help, you can combine different types. Maybe you will create a real masterpiece from the leftover vegetables stored in the refrigerator?

Ready-to-eat foods are low in vital substances because many vitamins are lost during the manufacture and storage of such foods. In addition, large amounts of preservatives and flavors are harmful to the intestinal flora and can cause allergic reactions... Unless you're in time trouble, you should cook with unprocessed, raw foods.

Milk and dairy products. Milk and dairy products are important providers of protein for the body. In addition, these foods supply calcium to prevent bone breakdown. Fresh cow's milk is classified as a weakly acidic product, but cottage cheese, sour milk, yogurt and cheese as lactic acid fermentation products are acid-containing, but they include nutrients valuable for metabolism. But only eat fresh dairy products (no homogenized milk!). If possible, avoid sugar-containing fruit yoghurts (“fruit” here is a drop of jam), instead of adding fresh fruit to natural yoghurt.

Eggs, meat, fish, poultry. Animal protein can be added to vegetable protein substances of food. True, one must beware of its excess: it causes putrefaction in the intestines. There is nothing to object to one or two small meals of meat or fish per week. With regard to meat, one must especially monitor its quality. Only buy meat from places where it is tested. Pork comes mainly from fattening enterprises, therefore it contains a lot of exchangeable slags; such meat is best avoided. Vegetarian food can be varied by dishes prepared with eggs.

Vegetables and fruits — critical sources grounds. They also contain many vitamins and minerals. True, some types of vegetables are not well absorbed by everyone. These are, first of all, legumes (peas, beans, lentils) and cabbage. People prone to flatulence and intestinal ailments should prefer more easily digestible vegetables: carrots, potatoes, celery, zucchini, fennel.

1. What is the reason for the need to normalize the pH of the medium (slightly alkaline) of the large intestine?

2. What variants of the acid-base state are possible for the environment of the large intestine?

3. What is the reason for the deviation of the acid-base state of the internal environment of the large intestine from the norm?

So, alas and ah, we have to admit that from everything that has been said about the digestion of a healthy person, it does not at all follow the need to normalize the pH of the medium of his large intestine. Such a problem does not exist during normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, it is quite obvious.

The large intestine in a filled state has a moderately acidic environment with a pH of 5.0-7.0, which makes it possible for the representatives of the normal microflora of the large intestine to actively break down fiber, participate in the synthesis of vitamins E, K, group B (BV ") and others. biologically active substances.In this case, the friendly intestinal microflora performs a protective function, carrying out the destruction of facultative and pathogenic microbes that cause repression. normal microflora the large intestine determines the development of natural immunity in its host.

Consider another situation where the large intestine is not filled with intestinal contents.

Yes, in this case, the reaction of its internal environment will be defined as slightly alkaline, due to the fact that a small volume of weakly alkaline intestinal juice is released into the lumen of the large intestine (approximately 50-60 ml per day with a pH of 8.5-9.0). But even in this case, there is not the slightest reason to fear putrefactive and fermentative processes, because if there is nothing in the large intestine, then, in fact, there is nothing to rot. And even more so, there is no need to fight with such an alkalinity, because this is the physiological norm of a healthy organism. I believe that unjustified actions to acidify the large intestine can bring nothing but harm to a healthy person.

Where, then, does the problem of alkalization of the large intestine arise, with which it is necessary to fight, on what is it based?

It seems to me that the whole point is that, unfortunately, this problem is presented as an independent problem, while, despite its importance, it is only a consequence of the unhealthy functioning of the entire gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, it is necessary to look for the reasons for the deviation from the norm not at the level of the large intestine, but much higher - in the stomach, where a full-scale process of preparing food components for absorption unfolds. It directly depends on the quality of food processing in the stomach - it will be subsequently assimilated by the body or, undigested, will be sent to the large intestine for disposal.

As you know, hydrochloric acid plays an important role in the digestion process in the stomach. It stimulates the secretory activity of the glands of the stomach, promotes the transformation of the enzyme pepsinogen, which is unable to act on proteins, into the enzyme pepsin; creates an optimal acid-base balance for the action of enzymes of gastric juice; causes denaturation, preliminary destruction and swelling of food proteins, ensures their breakdown by enzymes;

supports the antibacterial effect of gastric juice, i.e. the destruction of pathogenic and putrefactive microbes.

Hydrochloric acid also promotes the transfer of food from the stomach to the duodenum and further participates in the regulation of the secretion of the duodenal glands, stimulating their motor activity.

Gastric juice actively breaks down proteins or, as they say in science, has a proteolytic effect, activating enzymes in a wide pH range from 1.5-2.0 to 3.2-4.0.

At optimum acidity of the medium, pepsin has a cleavage effect on proteins, breaking peptide bonds in the protein molecule formed by groups of different amino acids.

As a result of this effect, a complex protein molecule breaks down into simpler substances: peptones, peptides and proteases. Pepsin provides hydrolysis of the main protein substances in meat products, and especially collagen - the main component of connective tissue fibers.

Under the influence of pepsin, the breakdown of proteins begins. However, in the stomach, splitting only reaches peptides and albumosis - large fragments of a protein molecule. Further cleavage of these derivatives of the protein molecule occurs already in the small intestine under the action of enzymes of intestinal juice and pancreatic juice.

In the small intestine, amino acids formed during the final digestion of proteins are dissolved in the intestinal contents and absorbed into the blood.

And it is quite natural that if an organism is characterized by any parameter, there will always be people in whom it is either increased or decreased. The deviation in the direction of increase has the prefix "hyper", and in the direction of reduction - "hypo". There are no exceptions in this regard, and patients with impaired gastric secretory function.

At the same time, a change in the secretory function of the stomach, characterized by an increased level of hydrochloric acid with its excessive release - hypersecretion, is called hyperacid gastritis or gastritis with increased acidity of gastric juice. When everything is the other way around and hydrochloric acid is released less than the norm, we are dealing with hypocidal gastritis or gastritis with low acidity of gastric juice.

In the case of a complete absence of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, they speak of anacid gastritis or gastritis with zero acidity of gastric juice.

The very same disease "gastritis" is defined as inflammation of the gastric mucosa, in a chronic form, accompanied by the restructuring of its structure and progressive atrophy, impaired secretory, motor and endocrine (absorption) functions of the stomach.

I must say that gastritis occurs much more often than we think. According to statistics, in one form or another, gastritis is detected during gastroenterological examination, i.e. examination of the gastrointestinal tract, in almost every second patient.

In the case of hypocidal gastritis, caused by a decrease in the acid-forming function of the stomach and, consequently, the activity of gastric juice and a decrease in the level of its acidity, the food gruel coming from the stomach into the small intestine will no longer be as acidic as with normal acid production. And then along the entire length of the intestine, as shown in the chapter "Basics of the digestion process", only its consistent alkalization is possible.

If, during normal acid formation, the level of acidity of the contents of the large intestine decreases to slightly acidic and even to a neutral reaction of pH 5-7, then in the case of low acidity of gastric juice - in the large intestine, the reaction of the contents will already be either neutral or slightly alkaline, with a pH of 7-8 ...

If a food gruel that is weakly acidified in the stomach, which does not contain animal proteins, takes an alkaline reaction in the large intestine, then in the presence of animal protein in it, which is a pronounced alkaline product, the contents of the large intestine become alkaline seriously and for a long time.

Why for a long time? Because due to the alkaline reaction of the internal environment of the large intestine, its peristalsis is sharply weakened.

Let's remember, what is the environment in the empty colon? - Alkaline.

The converse is also true: if the large intestine is alkaline, then the large intestine is empty. And if it is empty, a healthy organism will not waste energy on peristaltic work, and the large intestine will rest.

Rest, completely natural for a healthy intestine, ends with a change in the chemical reaction of its internal environment to acidic, which in the chemical language of our body means - the large intestine is full, it's time to work, it's time to thicken, dehydrate and move the formed feces closer to the exit.

But when the large intestine is filled with alkaline content, the large intestine does not receive a chemical signal to end rest and start work. Moreover, the body still believes that the large intestine is empty, while the large intestine continues to fill and fill up. And this is already serious, since the consequences can be the most severe. The notorious, perhaps, will be the most harmless of them.

In the case of a complete absence of free hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice, as is the case with anacid gastritis, the enzyme pepsin is not produced in the stomach at all. The process of digestion of animal proteins under such conditions is even theoretically impossible. And then almost all the eaten animal protein in undigested form ends up in the large intestine, where the reaction of feces will be strongly alkaline. It becomes quite obvious that the processes of decay simply cannot be avoided.

This gloomy prognosis is compounded by another unfortunate condition. If at the very beginning of the gastrointestinal tract due to the lack of hydrochloric acid there was no antibacterial action of gastric juice, then the pathogenic and putrefactive microbes brought in with food, not destroyed by gastric juice, getting into the large intestine on well-alkalized "soil", get the most favorable conditions for life and begin to multiply rapidly. At the same time, having a pronounced antagonistic activity in relation to representatives of the normal microflora of the large intestine, pathogenic microbes suppress their vital activity, which leads to disruption of the normal process of digestion in the large intestine with all the ensuing consequences.

Suffice it to say that the end products of putrefactive bacterial decomposition of proteins are such toxic and biologically active substances as amines, hydrogen sulfide, methane, which have a toxic effect on the entire human body. The consequence of this abnormal situation is constipation, colitis, enterocolitis, etc. Constipation, in turn, causes, and provokes constipation.

Given the putrefactive properties of excrement, it is very possible for the appearance of various kinds of tumors in the future, up to malignant ones.

In order, under the current circumstances, to suppress putrefactive processes, to restore the normal microflora and motor function of the large intestine, of course, it is necessary to fight for the normalization of the pH of its internal environment. And in this case, the cleansing and acidification of the large intestine according to N. Walker's method with enemas with the addition of lemon juice is perceived by me as a reasonable decision.

But at the same time, all this seems to be more cosmetic than a radical means of combating the alkalinity of the large intestine, since in itself it in no way can eliminate the root causes of such a disastrous situation in our body.

Dysbacteriosis - any changes in the quantitative or qualitative composition of the intestinal microflora ...

As a result of changes in the pH of the intestinal environment (decrease in acidity), arising against the background of a decrease in the number of bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and propionobacteria for various reasons ... bacteria to create an acidic environment in the intestine ... This is used by pathogenic microorganisms and begin to multiply actively (pathogenic microbes cannot stand an acidic environment) ...

... moreover, the pathogenic microflora itself produces alkaline metabolites that increase the pH of the environment (decrease in acidity, increase in alkalinity), alkalization of intestinal contents occurs, and this is a favorable environment for the habitat and reproduction of pathogenic bacteria.

Metabolites (toxins) of the pathogenic flora change the pH in the intestine, indirectly causing dysbacteriosis, since as a result, it becomes possible for the introduction of microorganisms alien to the intestine, and the normal filling of the intestine with bacteria is disturbed. Thus, a kind of vicious circle arises, only aggravating the course of the pathological process.

In our diagram, the concept of "dysbiosis" can be described as follows:

For various reasons, the number of bifidobacteria and (or) lactobacilli decreases, which manifests itself in the reproduction and growth of pathogenic microbes (staphylococci, streptococci, clostridia, fungi, etc.) of residual microflora with their pathogenic properties.

Also, a decrease in bifidobacteria and lactobacilli can be manifested by the growth of concomitant pathogenic microflora (Escherichia coli, enterococci), as a result of which they begin to exhibit pathogenic properties.

And of course, in some cases, the situation is not excluded when the useful microflora is completely absent.

These are actually variants of various "plexuses" of intestinal dysbiosis.

What are pH and acidity? Important!

Any solutions and liquids are characterized by a pH value (pH - potential hydrogen), which quantitatively expresses their acidity.

If the pH is within

From 1.0 to 6.9, the medium is called acidic;

Equal 7.0 - neutral environment;

At a pH between 7.1 and 14.0, the medium is alkaline.

The lower the pH, the higher the acidity, the higher the pH, the higher the alkalinity of the medium and the lower the acidity.

Since the human body is 60-70% water, the pH level has a profound effect on the chemical processes occurring in the body, and, accordingly, on human health. An unbalanced pH is the pH level at which the body's environment becomes too acidic or too alkaline for an extended period of time. Indeed, pH control is so important that the human body itself has developed the function of controlling the acid-base balance in each cell. All regulatory mechanisms of the body (including respiration, metabolism, hormone production) are aimed at balancing the pH level. If the pH level becomes too low (acidic) or too high (alkaline), then the cells of the body poison themselves with their toxic wastes and die.

In the body, the pH level regulates blood acidity, urine acidity, vaginal acidity, sperm acidity, skin acidity, etc. But you and I are now interested in the pH level and acidity of the colon, nasopharynx and mouth, stomach.

Acidity in the colon

Acidity in the large intestine: 5.8 - 6.5 pH, this is an acidic environment that is supported by normal microflora, in particular, as I have already mentioned, by bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and propionobacteria due to the fact that they neutralize alkaline metabolic products and produce their acid metabolites - lactic acid and other organic acids ...

... By producing organic acids and lowering the pH of intestinal contents, the normal microflora creates conditions under which pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms cannot multiply. This is why streptococci, staphylococci, Klebsiella, Clostridium fungi and other “bad” bacteria make up only 1% of the total intestinal microflora of a healthy person.

1. The fact is that pathogenic and opportunistic microbes cannot exist in an acidic environment and specifically produce the same alkaline metabolic products (metabolites) aimed at alkalizing intestinal contents by increasing the pH level to create favorable conditions for themselves (increased pH - hence - low acidity - hence - alkalization). I repeat once again that bifidobacteria, lacto- and propionobacteria neutralize these alkaline metabolites, plus they themselves produce acid metabolites that lower the pH level and increase the acidity of the environment, thereby creating favorable conditions for their existence. This is where the eternal confrontation between “good” and “bad” microbes arises, which is regulated by the Darwinian law: “the fittest survives”!

For example,

• Bifidobacteria are able to reduce the pH of the intestinal environment to 4.6-4.4;
• Lactobacilli up to pH 5.5-5.6;
• Propionobacteria are capable of lowering the pH level to 4.2-3.8, this is actually their main function. Propionic acid bacteria produce organic acids (propionic acid) as the end product of their anaerobic metabolism.

As you can see, all these bacteria are acid-forming, it is for this reason that they are often called “acid-forming” or often simply “lactic acid bacteria”, although the same propionic bacteria are not lactic, but propionic acid bacteria ...

Acidity in the nasopharynx, in the mouth

As I already noted in the chapter in which we analyzed the functions of the microflora of the upper respiratory tract: one of the functions of the microflora of the nose, pharynx and throat is the regulatory function, i.e. the normal microflora of the upper respiratory tract is involved in the regulation of maintaining the pH level of the environment ...

... But if “pH regulation in the intestine” is performed only by the normal intestinal microflora (bifidobacteria, lacto- and propionobacteria), and this is one of its main functions, then in the nasopharynx and in the mouth the function of “pH regulation” is performed not only by the normal microflora of these organs, as well as mucous secretions: saliva and snot ...

1. You have already noticed that the composition of the microflora of the upper respiratory tract differs significantly from the intestinal microflora, if beneficial microflora (bifidobacteria and lactobacilli) prevail in the intestines of a healthy person, then opportunistic microorganisms (Neisseria, corynebacteria, etc.) predominantly live in the nasopharynx and throat. ), lacto- and bifidobacteria are present there in small quantities (by the way, bifidobacteria may be absent altogether). Such a differential composition of the intestinal and respiratory tract microflora is due to the fact that they perform different functions and tasks (the functions of the microflora of the upper respiratory tract, see Chapter 17).

So, the acidity in the nasopharynx is determined by its normal microflora, as well as mucous secretions (snot) - secretions that are produced by the glands of the epithelial tissue of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. The normal pH (acidity) of mucus is 5.5-6.5, it is an acidic environment. Accordingly, the pH in the nasopharynx in a healthy person has the same values.

The acidity of the mouth and throat is determined by their normal microflora and mucous secretions, in particular, saliva. The normal pH of saliva is 6.8-7.4 pH, respectively, the pH in the mouth and throat takes the same values.

1. The pH level in the nasopharynx and in the mouth depends on its normal microflora, which depends on the state of the intestines.

2. The pH level in the nasopharynx and in the mouth depends on the pH of mucous secretions (snot and saliva), this pH, in turn, also depends on the balance of the state of our intestines.

The acidity of the stomach is on average 4.2-5.2 pH, it is a very acidic environment (sometimes, depending on the food we eat, the pH can fluctuate between 0.86 - 8.3). The microbial composition of the stomach is very poor and is represented by a small number of microorganisms (lactobacilli, streptococci, Helicobacteria, fungi), i.e. bacteria that can withstand such strong acidity.

Unlike the intestines, where acidity is created by normal microflora (bifidobacteria, lacto- and propionobacteria), and also unlike the nasopharynx and mouth, where acidity is created by normal microflora and mucous secretions (snot, saliva), the main contribution to the total acidity of the stomach is made gastric juice - hydrochloric acid, which is produced by the cells of the glands of the stomach, located mainly in the fundus and body of the stomach.

So, this was an important digression about "pH", now we continue.

In the scientific literature, as a rule, four microbiological phases in the development of dysbiosis are distinguished ...

Exactly what phases exist in the development of dysbiosis, you will learn from the next chapter, you will also learn about the forms and causes of this phenomenon, and about this type of dysbiosis when there are no symptoms from the gastrointestinal tract.

Comments (1)

cc-t1.ru

Digestion in the Small Intestine - Medical Portal for Health and Disease Prevention

For further digestion, the contents of the stomach enters the duodenum (12 sc) - the initial part of the small intestine.

From the stomach in 12 sc. only chyme can enter - food processed to a state of liquid or semi-liquid consistency.

Digestion at 12 sc. carried out in a neutral or alkaline environment (on an empty stomach, pH 12 sc is 7.2-8.0). Digestion in the stomach was carried out in an acidic environment. Therefore, the contents of the stomach are acidic. Neutralization of the acidic environment of gastric contents and the establishment of an alkaline environment is carried out in 12 sc. due to the secretions (juices) of the pancreas, small intestine and bile entering the intestine, which have an alkaline reaction due to the hydrocarbons present in them.

Chyme from the stomach in 12 sc. comes in small portions. Irritation by hydrochloric acid of the pyloric sphincter receptors from the stomach leads to its opening. Irritation of the pyloric sphincter receptors by hydrochloric acid from the 12 sc. leads to its closure. As soon as the pH in the pyloric part is 12 sc. changes to the acidic side, the pyloric sphincter is reduced and the flow of chyme from the stomach in 12 p.to. stops. After the alkaline pH is restored (on average in 16 seconds), the pyloric sphincter passes the next portion of the chyme from the stomach, and so on. In 12 p.c. The pH ranges from 4 to 8.

In 12 p.c. after neutralization of the acidic environment of the gastric chyme, the action of pepsin, an enzyme of gastric juice, stops. Digestion in the small intestine continues already in an alkaline medium under the action of enzymes that enter the intestinal lumen as part of the secretion (juice) of the pancreas, as well as as part of the intestinal secretion (juice) from enterocytes - cells of the small intestine. Under the action of pancreatic enzymes, cavity digestion is carried out - the splitting of food proteins, fats and carbohydrates (polymers) into intermediate substances (oligomers) in the intestinal cavity. Under the action of enterocyte enzymes, the parietal (near the inner wall of the intestine) oligomers to monomers are carried out, that is, the final splitting of food proteins, fats and carbohydrates into their constituent components that enter (are absorbed) into the circulatory and lymphatic system (into the bloodstream and lymph flow).

Digestion in the small intestine also requires bile, which is produced by liver cells (hepatocytes) and enters the small intestine through the bile (bile) ducts (biliary tract). The main component of bile - bile acids and their salts are necessary for the emulsification of fats, without which the process of lipolysis is disrupted and slows down. The bile ducts are subdivided into intra- and extrahepatic. Intrahepatic bile ducts (ducts) are a treelike system of tubes (ducts) through which bile flows from hepatocytes. Small bile ducts are connected to a larger duct, the aggregate of larger ducts forms an even larger duct. This union is completed in the right lobe of the liver - the bile duct of the right lobe of the liver, in the left - the bile duct of the left lobe of the liver. The bile duct of the right lobe of the liver is called the right bile duct. The bile duct of the left lobe of the liver is called the left bile duct. These two ducts form a common hepatic duct. At the gate of the liver, the common hepatic duct will connect with the cystic bile duct, forming a common bile duct, which is directed to 12 p.c. Through the cystic bile duct, bile flows from the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a storage reservoir for bile produced by liver cells. The gallbladder is located on the lower surface of the liver, in the right longitudinal groove.

The secret (juice) of the pancreas is formed (synthesized) by acinous pancreatocytes (cells of the pancreas), which are structurally combined into acini. The cells of the acinus form (synthesize) the juice of the pancreas, which enters the excretory duct of the acinus. Neighboring acini are separated by thin layers of connective tissue in which blood capillaries and nerve fibers of the autonomic nervous system are located. The ducts of neighboring acini merge into the inter-acinous ducts, which, in turn, flow into the larger intralobular and interlobular ducts that lie in the connective tissue septa. The latter, merging, form a common excretory duct, which runs from the tail of the gland to the head (structurally, the head, body and tail are secreted in the pancreas). The excretory duct (Virungian duct) of the pancreas, together with the common bile duct, obliquely penetrates the wall of the descending part of the 12 p.c. and opens inside 12 p.c. on the mucous membrane. This place is called the large (Vater) papilla. In this place there is the smooth muscle sphincter of Oddi, which also functions according to the nipple principle - it passes bile and pancreatic juice from the duct to 12 bp. and closes the flow of contents 12 p. to. into the duct. The sphincter of Oddi is a complex sphincter. It consists of the sphincter of the common bile duct, the sphincter of the pancreatic duct (pancreatic duct) and the sphincter of Westphal (the sphincter of the large duodenal papilla), which provides separation of both ducts from 12 papilla .. Sometimes, 2 cm higher from the large papilla, there is a small papilla - formed an additional, unstable small (Santorini) duct of the pancreas. In this place is the sphincter of Helly.

Pancreatic juice is a colorless transparent liquid that has an alkaline reaction (pH 7.5-8.8) due to the content of hydrocarbons in it. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes (amylase, lipase, nuclease, and others) and proenzymes (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase A and B, proelastase and pro-phospholipase, and others). Proenzymes are an inactive form of an enzyme. Activation of pancreatic enzymes (converting them into an active form - an enzyme) occurs in 12 sc.

Epithelial cells 12 sc. - enterocytes synthesize and secrete the enzyme kinazogen (proenzyme) into the intestinal lumen. Under the action of bile acids, kinazogen is converted into enteropeptidase (enzyme). Enterokinase cleaves off the hecosopeptide from trypsinogen, resulting in the formation of the enzyme trypsin. To implement this process (to convert the inactive form of the enzyme (trypsinogen) into the active one (trypsin)), an alkaline medium (pH 6.8-8.0) and the presence of calcium ions (Ca2 +) are required. The subsequent conversion of trypsinogen to trypsin is carried out in 12 sc. under the action of the formed trypsin. In addition, trypsin activates other pancreatic enzymes. The interaction of trypsin with proenzymes leads to the formation of enzymes (chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B, elastases and phospholipases, and others). Trypsin shows its optimal effect in a slightly alkaline environment (at pH 7.8-8).

The enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin break down food proteins into oligopeptides. Oligopeptides are an intermediate product of protein breakdown. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase destroy the intrapeptide bonds of proteins (peptides), as a result of which high-molecular (containing many amino acids) proteins break down into low-molecular-weight (oligopeptides).

Nucleases (DNases, RNAses) cleave nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) to nucleotides. Nucleotides under the action of alkaline phosphatases and nucleotidases are converted into nucleosides, which are absorbed from the digestive system into the blood and lymph.

Pancreatic lipase breaks down fats, mainly triglycerides, into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Phospholipase A2 and esterase also act on lipids.

Since dietary fats are insoluble in water, lipase acts only on the surface of the fat. The larger the contact surface of fat and lipase, the more active lipase breakdown of fat occurs. Increases the contact surface of fat and lipase, the process of fat emulsification. As a result of emulsification, the fat is broken down into many small droplets ranging in size from 0.2 to 5 microns. Emulsification of fats begins in the oral cavity as a result of crushing (chewing) food and wetting it with saliva, then continues in the stomach under the influence of gastric motility (mixing food in the stomach) and the final (main) emulsification of fats occurs in the small intestine under the influence of bile acids and their salts. In addition, the fatty acids formed as a result of the breakdown of triglycerides interact with the alkalis of the small intestine, which leads to the formation of soap, which additionally emulsifies the fats. With a lack of bile acids and their salts, insufficient emulsification of fats occurs, and, accordingly, their splitting and assimilation. Fats are removed in the feces. In this case, the feces become fatty, mushy, white or gray. This condition is called steatorrhea. Bile inhibits the growth of putrefactive microflora. Therefore, with insufficient formation and entry of bile into the intestine, putrefactive dyspepsia develops. With putrefactive dyspepsia, diarrhea occurs = diarrhea (feces are dark brown, liquid or mushy with a pungent putrid odor, frothy (with gas bubbles). The products of putrefaction (dimethyl mercaptan, hydrogen sulfide, indole, skatole and others) worsen general health (weakness, loss of appetite , malaise, chills, headache).

The lipase activity is directly proportional to the presence of calcium ions (Ca2 +), bile salts, the enzyme colipase. Under the action of lipases, usually incomplete hydrolysis of triglycerides occurs; this forms a mixture of monoglycerides (about 50%), fatty acids and glycerol (40%), di- and triglycerides (3-10%).

Glycerin and short fatty acids (containing up to 10 carbon atoms) are independently absorbed from the intestine into the bloodstream. Fatty acids containing more than 10 carbon atoms, free cholesterol, monoacylglycerols are water insoluble (hydrophobic) and cannot independently enter the bloodstream from the intestine. This becomes possible after they combine with bile acids to form complex compounds called micelles. The micelle size is very small - about 100 nm in diameter. The core of micelles is hydrophobic (repels water), and the shell is hydrophilic. Bile acids serve as a conductor for fatty acids from the small intestine cavity to enterocytes (cells of the small intestine). Micelles disintegrate at the surface of enterocytes. Fatty acids, free cholesterol, monoacylglycerols enter the enterocyte. The absorption of fat-soluble vitamins is interconnected with this process. Parasympathetic autonomic nervous system, hormones of the adrenal cortex, thyroid gland, pituitary gland, hormones 12 sc. secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) increase absorption, the sympathetic autonomic nervous system decreases absorption. The liberated bile acids, reaching the large intestine, are absorbed into the blood, mainly in the ileum, and then absorbed (withdrawn) from the blood by liver cells (hepatocytes). In enterocytes, with the participation of intracellular enzymes from fatty acids, phospholipids, triacylglycerols (TAG, triglycerides (fats) - a compound of glycerol (glycerol) with three fatty acids), cholesterol esters (a compound of free cholesterol with a fatty acid) are formed. Further, from these substances in enterocytes, complex compounds with protein are formed - lipoproteins, mainly chylomicrons (HM) and in a smaller amount - high density lipoproteins (HDL). HDL from enterocytes enter the bloodstream. CMs are large and therefore cannot get directly from the enterocyte into circulatory system... From enterocytes, HM enter the lymph, into the lymphatic system. From the thoracic lymphatic duct, HMs enter the circulatory system.

Pancreatic amylase (α-amylase), breaks down polysaccharides (carbohydrates) into oligosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are an intermediate product of the breakdown of polysaccharides, consisting of several monosaccharides interconnected by intermolecular bonds. Among the oligosaccharides formed from food polysaccharides under the action of pancreatic amylase, disaccharides, consisting of two monosaccharides and trisaccharides, consisting of three monosaccharides, prevail. α-Amylase shows its optimal effect in a neutral medium (at pH 6.7-7.0).

Depending on the food consumed, the pancreas produces different amounts of enzymes. For example, if you eat only fatty foods, then the pancreas will produce mainly an enzyme for digesting fats - lipase. In this case, the production of other enzymes will be significantly reduced. If there is only one bread, then the pancreas will produce enzymes that break down carbohydrates. You should not overuse a monotonous diet, as a constant imbalance in the production of enzymes can lead to diseases.

The epithelial cells of the small intestine (enterocytes) secrete a secretion into the lumen of the intestine, which is called intestinal juice. Intestinal juice has an alkaline reaction due to the content of hydrocarbons in it. The pH of intestinal juice ranges from 7.2 to 8.6, contains enzymes, mucus, other substances, as well as aged rejected enterocytes. In the mucous membrane of the small intestine, there is a continuous change of the layer of cells of the superficial epithelium. The complete renewal of these cells in humans takes 1-6 days. Such intensity of formation and rejection of cells becomes the reason for their large number in the intestinal juice (in humans, about 250 g of enterocytes are rejected per day).

The mucus synthesized by enterocytes forms a protective layer that prevents excessive mechanical and chemical attack chyme on the intestinal mucosa.

In the intestinal juice there are more than 20 different enzymes involved in digestion. The main part of these enzymes takes part in parietal digestion, that is, directly at the surface of the villi, microvilli of the small intestine - in the glycocalyx. Glycocalyx is a molecular sieve that allows molecules to pass to the cells of the intestinal epithelium, depending on their size, charge, and other parameters. Glycocalyx contains enzymes from the intestinal cavity and synthesized by the enterocytes themselves. In the glyix, the final splitting of the intermediate products of the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates into their constituent components (oligomers to monomers) takes place. The glycocalyx, microvilli, and apical membrane are collectively called striated border.

Carbohydrases of intestinal juice consist mainly of disaccharidases, which break down disaccharides (carbohydrates consisting of two molecules of monosaccharides) into two molecules of monosaccharides. Sucrase breaks down the sucrose molecule into glucose and fructose. Maltase breaks down the maltose molecule, and trehalase breaks down trehalose into two glucose molecules. Lactase (α-galactazidase) breaks down the lactose molecule into glucose and galactose. A deficiency in the synthesis of one or another disaccharidase by the cells of the mucous membrane of the small intestine becomes the cause of intolerance to the corresponding disaccharide. Known genetically fixed and acquired lactase, trehalase, sucrase and combined disaccharidase deficiencies.

Intestinal juice peptidases cleave the peptide bond between two specific amino acids. Peptidases of intestinal juice complete the hydrolysis of oligopeptides, as a result of which amino acids are formed - the end products of the breakdown (hydrolysis) of proteins that enter (are absorbed) from the small intestine into the blood and lymph.

Nucleases (DNases, RNAases) of intestinal juice cleave DNA and RNA to nucleotides. Nucleotides under the action of alkaline phosphatases and nucleotidases of intestinal juice are converted into nucleosides, which are absorbed from the small intestine into the blood and lymph.

The main lipase of intestinal juice is intestinal monoglyceride lipase. It hydrolyzes monoglycerides of any hydrocarbon chain length, as well as short-chain di- and triglycerides, to a lesser extent, medium-chain triglycerides and cholesterol esters.

The secretion of pancreatic juice, intestinal juice, bile, motor activity (peristalsis) of the small intestine is controlled by neuro-humoral (hormonal) mechanisms. The control is carried out by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hormones, which are synthesized by the cells of the gastroenteropancreatic endocrine system - part of the diffuse endocrine system.

In accordance with the functional characteristics, the parasympathetic ANS and the sympathetic ANS are distinguished in the ANS. Both of these departments of the ANS carry out management.

The neurons that exercise control come into a state of excitation under the influence of impulses that come to them from receptors in the mouth, nose, stomach, small intestine, as well as from the cerebral cortex (thoughts, conversations about food, the type of food, etc.). In response to incoming impulses, the excited neurons send impulses along the efferent nerve fibers to the controlled cells. Near the cells, the axons of efferent neurons form numerous branches ending in tissue synapses. When a neuron is excited, a neurotransmitter is released from the tissue synapse - a substance with which the excited neuron affects the function of the cells it controls. The mediator of the parasymptomatic autonomic nervous system is acetylcholine. The mediator of the sympathetic autonomic nervous system is norepinephrine.

Under the action of acetylcholine (parasympathetic ANS), there is an increase in the secretion of intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, bile, increased peristalsis (motor, motor function) of the small intestine, gallbladder. Efferent parasympathetic nerve fibers go to the small intestine, to the pancreas, to liver cells, to the biliary tract in the composition vagus nerve... Acetylcholine exerts its effect on cells through M-cholinergic receptors located on the surface (membranes, membranes) of these cells.

Under the action of norepinephrine (sympathetic ANS), the peristalsis of the small intestine decreases, the formation of intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, and bile decreases. Norepinephrine exerts its effect on cells through β-adrenergic receptors located on the surface (membranes, membranes) of these cells.

The auerbach plexus, the intraorgan department of the autonomic nervous system (intramural nervous system), takes part in the control of the motor function of the small intestine. The control is based on local peripheral reflexes. The Auerbach plexus is a dense, continuous network of nerve nodes connected by nerve cords. Nerve nodes are a collection of neurons (nerve cells), and nerve cords are the processes of these neurons. In accordance with the functional characteristics, the Auerbach plexus consists of neurons of the parasympathetic ANS and the sympathetic ANS. The nerve nodes and nerve cords of the Auerbach plexus are located between the longitudinal and circular layers of the smooth muscle bundles of the intestinal wall, go in the longitudinal and circular directions and form a continuous nervous network around the intestine. Nerve cells of the Auerbach plexus innervate longitudinal and circular bundles of intestinal smooth muscle cells, regulating their contractions.

Two nerve plexuses of the intramural nervous system (intraorgan autonomic nervous system) are also involved in the control of the secretory function of the small intestine: subserous nerve plexus(sparrow plexus) and submucous nerve plexus (meissner's plexus). Management is carried out on the basis of local peripheral reflexes. These two plexuses, like the Auerbach plexus, are a dense continuous network of nerve nodes connected by nerve cords, consisting of neurons of the parasympathetic ANS and the sympathetic ANS.

The neurons of all three plexuses have synaptic connections with each other.

The motor activity of the small intestine is controlled by two autonomous sources of rhythm. The first is located at the confluence of the common bile duct into the duodenum, and the other in the ileum.

The motor activity of the small intestine is controlled by reflexes that excite and inhibit intestinal motility. Reflexes that excite small bowel motility include: esophageal, gastrointestinal, and intestinal reflexes. Reflexes that inhibit the motility of the small intestine include: intestinal, rectoenteric, reflex receptor relaxation (inhibition) of the small intestine during meals.

The motor activity of the small intestine depends on physical and chemical properties chyme. The high content of fiber, salts, intermediate products of hydrolysis (especially fats) in the chyme increase the peristalsis of the small intestine.

S-cells of the mucous membrane 12 sc. synthesize and release prosecretin (prohormone) into the intestinal lumen. Prosecretin is mainly converted into secretin (hormone) by the action of hydrochloric acid in the gastric chyme. The most intense conversion of prosecretin to secretin occurs at pH = 4 or less. With increasing pH, the rate of conversion decreases in direct proportion. Secretin is absorbed into the bloodstream and reaches the cells of the pancreas with the blood stream. Under the action of secretin, the cells of the pancreas increase the secretion of water and bicarbonates. Secretin does not increase pancreatic secretion of enzymes and zymogenic enzymes. Under the action of secretin, the secretion of the alkaline component of the pancreatic juice increases, which enters 12 sc. The more acidity of the gastric juice (the lower the pH of the gastric juice), the more secretin is formed, the more it is released in 12 sc. pancreatic juice with plenty of water and hydrocarbons. Bicarbonates neutralize hydrochloric acid, the pH increases, the formation of secretin decreases, the secretion of pancreatic juice with a high bicarbonate content decreases. In addition, under the action of secretin, bile formation and secretion of the glands of the small intestine increase.

The transformation of prosecretin into secretin also occurs under the action of ethyl alcohol, fatty, bile acids, and spice components.

The largest number of S-cells is located in 12 bp. and in the upper (proximal) part of the jejunum. The smallest number of S-cells is located in the outermost (lower, distal) part of the jejunum.

Secretin is a peptide of 27 amino acid residues. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), glucagon-like peptide-1, glucagon, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), calcitonin, calcitonin gene associated peptide, parathyroid hormone, growth-releasing factor , corticotropin releasing factor and others.

When chyme enters the small intestine from the stomach, I-cells located in the mucous membrane of 12 sc. and the upper (proximal) part of the jejunum begin to synthesize and release into the blood the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK, CCK, pancreozymin). Under the action of CCK, the sphincter of Oddi relaxes, the gallbladder contracts and, as a result, the flow of bile increases in the 12.p. to. CCK causes contraction of the pyloric sphincter and limits the flow of gastric chyme to 12 sc, enhances the motility of the small intestine. The most powerful stimulant of the synthesis and secretion of CCK are edible fats, proteins, alkaloids of choleretic herbs. Dietary carbohydrates do not have a stimulating effect on the synthesis and release of CCK. Gastrin-releasing peptide is also a stimulant of CCK synthesis and release.

The synthesis and release of CCK decreases under the action of somatostatin, a peptide hormone. Somatostatin is synthesized and released into the blood by D-cells, which are located in the stomach, intestines, among the endocrine cells of the pancreas (in the islets of Langerhans). Somatostatin is also synthesized by the cells of the hypothalamus. Under the influence of somatostatin, not only CCK synthesis decreases. Under the action of somatostatin, the synthesis and release of other hormones decreases: gastrin, insulin, glucagon, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, insulin-like growth factor-1, somatotropin-releasing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormones and others.

Reduces gastric, biliary and pancreatic secretions, peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract. Peptide YY. Peptide YY is synthesized by L-cells, which are located in the mucous membrane of the large intestine and in the end of the small intestine - in the ileum. When the chyme reaches the ileum for fats, the carbohydrates and bile acids of the chyme act on the L-cell receptors. L-cells begin to synthesize and release the YY peptide into the blood. As a result, the peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract slows down, gastric, biliary and pancreatic secretion decreases. The phenomenon of slowing down the peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract after the chyme reaches the ileum is called the ileal brake. The secretion of YY peptide is also stimulated by gastrin-releasing peptide.

D1 (H) cells, which are located mainly in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas and, to a lesser extent, in the stomach, in the colon and in the small intestine, synthesize and release into the blood vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). VIP has a pronounced relaxing effect on the smooth muscle cells of the stomach, small intestine, colon, gallbladder, as well as the vessels of the gastrointestinal tract. Under the influence of VIP, the blood supply to the gastrointestinal tract increases. Under the influence of VIP, the secretion of pepsinogen, intestinal enzymes, pancreatic enzymes, the content of bicarbonates in the pancreatic juice increases, and the secretion of hydrochloric acid decreases.

The secretion of the pancreas is increased by the action of gastrin, serotonin, insulin. Salts of bile acids also stimulate the secretion of pancreatic juice. Reduce the secretion of the pancreas glucagon, somatostatin, vasopressin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), calcitonin.

The hormone Motilin belongs to the endocrine regulators of the motor (motor) function of the gastrointestinal tract. Motilin is synthesized and secreted into the blood by enterochromaffin cells of the mucous membrane 12 sc. and the jejunum. Bile acids are a stimulant of the synthesis and release of motilin into the blood. Motilin 5 times more strongly stimulates the peristalsis of the stomach, small and large intestine than the mediator of the parasympathetic ANS acetylcholine. Motilin, together with cholecystokinin, controls the contractile function of the gallbladder.

The endocrine regulators of the motor (motor) and secretory function of the intestine include the hormone Serotonin, which is synthesized by intestinal cells. Under the influence of this serotonin, intestinal peristalsis and secretory activity increase. In addition, intestinal serotonin is a growth factor for some types of symbiotic intestinal microflora. At the same time, the symbiotic microflora takes part in the synthesis of intestinal serotonin by decarboxylating tryptophan, which is a source, raw material for the synthesis of serotonin. With dysbiosis and some other intestinal diseases, the synthesis of intestinal serotonin decreases.

From the small intestine, chyme in portions (about 15 ml) enters the large intestine. This intake is regulated by the ileocecal sphincter (Bauginian valve). The opening of the sphincter occurs reflexively: peristalsis of the ileum (the end of the small intestine) increases the pressure on the sphincter from the small intestine, the sphincter relaxes (opens), the chyme enters the cecum (the initial part of the large intestine). When the cecum is filled and stretched, the sphincter closes, and the chyme does not return back to the small intestine.

You can place your comments on the topic below.

zhivizdravo.ru

Alpha Creation

Good digestion is critical to good health. The human body needs efficient digestion and proper excretion to maintain health and energy levels. So far, there is still no more common physiological disorder in humans than indigestion, which has many different forms. Consider this: Antacids (an acid neutralizing agent) (to combat a form of indigestion) is the number one over-the-counter drug in the United States. When we tolerate or ignore these conditions, or mask them with the help of pharmaceutical chemistry, we miss important signals that our body sends us. We must listen. Discomfort should serve as an early warning system. Indigestion is at the root of most diseases and their symptoms because indigestion supports the overgrowth of microforms that produce toxins (This is another vicious circle: Excessive growth of yeast, fungi and mold also contributes to indigestion). Poor digestion promotes acidic blood flow. Moreover, we cannot properly nourish our bodies if we do not properly digest food in a way. Without proper nutrition, we cannot be completely and constantly healthy. Finally, recurrent or chronic disorder digestion itself can be fatal. The gradual obstruction of intestinal function may go unnoticed until serious conditions such as Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome (mucous colitis) and even colon cancer appear.

1, 2, 3

Digestion actually has three key parts, and all of them must be in good health in order to maintain good health. But problems are common in each of the three stages. The first is indigestion, which begins in the mouth and continues in the stomach and small intestine. The second - in the small intestine, reduced absorption. The third is constipation of the lower intestines, which appears as diarrhea, infrequent bowel movements, fecal impaction, distention, or offensive gas.

Here's a guided tour of your digestive tract to help you understand how these types connect and overlap. Digestion actually begins when you chew your food. In addition to the work of the teeth, saliva also begins to destroy food. As soon as food reaches the stomach, stomach acid (a super potent substance) continues to break down the food into components. From there, digested food travels to the small intestine for a long journey (the human small intestine can reach 5-6 meters), during which nutrients are absorbed for use in the body. The next and final stop is the colon, where water and some minerals are absorbed. Then whatever your body hasn't absorbed, you excrete as waste.

It is an elegant and efficient system when it works right. She is also capable of quick recovery. But we habitually overextend our digestive system with poor quality food devoid of nutrients (also need to mention the stress in which we live) to such a level that it simply does not work out for most Americans. And this is without such factors as excessive acidity and the growth of microforms!

"Friendly" bacteria

It was normal anatomy. Another critical component of the human digestive system that you need to understand is bacteria and other microforms that are abundant in certain habitats. As long as we have healthy lifestyles and habits, these friendly bacteria, known as probiotics, exist within us to help us be healthy. They are irreplaceable and important not only for health, but also for life in general.

Probiotics support the integrity of the intestinal wall and internal environment. They prepare food for absorption and absorption of nutrients. They help maintain proper transit time for digested food, providing maximum absorption and rapid elimination. Probiotics release many different nutrients, including natural antiseptics lactic acid and acidophilus, which aid in digestion. They also produce vitamins. Probiotics can produce almost all B vitamins, including niacin (niacin, vitamin PP), biotin (vitamin H), B6, B12, and folic acid and can also convert one B vitamin into another. They are even capable of producing vitamin K, in some circumstances. They protect you from microorganisms. With the necessary cultures in your small intestine, even a salmonella infection will not harm you, and it will simply not be possible to get a so-called "yeast infection". Probiotics neutralize toxins by preventing them from being absorbed into your body. They have another key role to play: controlling unfriendly bacteria and other harmful microforms, preventing their overgrowth.

Healthy, balanced digestive system human can be found from 1.3 kg to 1.8 kg of probiotics. Unfortunately, I estimate that most people have less than 25% of their normal amount. Eating animal and processed foods, ingesting chemicals, including prescription and non-prescription drugs, overeating and undue stress of all types, destroy and weaken probiotic colonies and disrupt digestion. This in turn causes the overgrowth of harmful microforms and the problems that come with them.

The acidity in the stomach and colon varies depending on the food you eat. High water, low sugar foods, as recommended in this program, cause less acid. Once food reaches the small intestine, if necessary, the pancreas adds alkaline substances (8.0 - 8.3) to the mixture to raise the pH level. Thus, the body has the ability to keep acids or alkalis at the required level. But our modern, highly acidic nutrition overloads these systems. Proper nutrition does not allow the body to receive stress and allows the process to proceed naturally and easily.

Newborn babies have several different types intestinal microforms. No one knows how they get to them, but some believe that through the birth canal. Although, children born through cesarean section also have them. I believe that microforms do not come from anywhere and most likely these are specific cells of our body that actually evolved from our microzymes. For the symptoms of the disease to appear, this does not require "infection" with harmful microforms, the same can be said about beneficial microforms.

Small intestine

7-8 meters of small intestine requires a little more attention than I have provided in the previous cursory review. You also need to know that its inner walls are covered with small projections called villi. They serve to increase the maximum area of ​​contact with passing food, so that as much useful as possible can be absorbed from it. Your small intestine is about 200 square meters - almost the size of a tennis court!

Yeast, fungi and other microforms interfere with the absorption of nutrients. They can cover large areas of the inner membrane lining in the small intestine, displacing probiotics and preventing your body from getting nutrients from food. This can lead you to hunger for vitamins, minerals and especially protein, no matter what you put in your mouth. I estimate that more than half of US adults digest and absorb less than half of what they eat.

The overgrowth of microforms, feeding on the nutrients we were supposed to (and excreting their toxic waste from them), makes the situation even worse. Without proper nutrition, the body cannot heal and regenerate its tissues as needed. If you cannot digest or assimilate food, tissues will eventually starve. This not only drains your energy levels and makes you feel sick, but it also speeds up the aging process.

But this is just part of the problem. Consider also the fact that when the villi grab food, they transform it into red blood cells. These red blood cells circulate throughout the body and transform themselves into body cells different types including heart, liver and brain cells. I think you won't be surprised to learn that the pH level of the small intestine must be alkaline in order to transform food into red blood cells. Therefore, the quality of the food we eat determines the quality of the red blood cells, which in turn determine the quality of bones, muscles, organs, and so on. You literally eat what you eat.

If the intestinal wall is covered with a lot of sticky mucus, then these vital cells cannot form properly. And those that were created are underweight. The body must then resort to making red blood cells from its own tissues, stealing from bones, muscles, and elsewhere. Why do body cells transform back into red blood cells? The number of red blood cells must remain above a certain level for the body to function and we can live. We usually have about 5 million per cubic millimeter and rarely less than 3 million. Below this level, the supply of oxygen (which the red blood cells deliver) will not be sufficient to support the organs, and they will eventually cease to function. To prevent this, the cells in the body begin to turn back into red blood cells.

Colon

The large intestine is our body's sewage system. It flushes out waste that is unusable for us and acts like a sponge, squeezing water and mineral content into the bloodstream. In addition to probiotics, the intestines contain some healthy yeast and fungi that help soften stools for quick and thorough waste removal.

By the time the digested food reaches the large intestine, most of the liquid materials have been removed from it. This is how it should be, but it presents a potential problem: If the final phase of digestion does not go well, the large intestine can become clogged with old (toxic) waste.

The large intestine is very sensitive. Any trauma, surgery, or other stress, including emotional breakdown and negative thinking patterns, can alter its friendly resident bacteria and overall ability to function smoothly and efficiently. Incomplete digestion leads to intestinal imbalances throughout the digestive tract, as well as to the colon becoming literally a cesspool.

Digestive complexity throughout the intestines often interferes with proper protein breakdown. Partially digested proteins that are not suitable for the body can still be absorbed into the bloodstream. In this form, they serve nothing more than feeding the microforms, increasing the production of their waste. These protein fragments also stimulate the immune system to respond.

Joey's story

No one has time to get sick, especially when others are counting on you. I am a single mother, I also care for my recently disabled father, and I need all the strength to keep my home alive. But I've been sick for over two decades. I decided it was better to stay at home and just remove myself from the human race.

One day in the library, trying to pull myself together after one of the excruciatingly painful attacks, I came across a book with a chapter on irritable bowel syndrome (mucous colitis) (my diagnosis for many years). The mention of aloe vera and acidophilus in it immediately sent me to the nearest store. healthy food where I started asking questions.

The saleswoman was quite helpful. She asked why I was looking for these products and I told her about my irritable bowel syndrome, thyroid and adrenal dysfunction, hiatal hernia, endometriosis, kidney infections and many other infections. Antibiotics were my way of life. In the end, my doctors just told me to learn to live with them, but the saleswoman told me that she knows people with stories similar to mine and who changed their state to the opposite. She introduced me to a woman whose story was similar to mine. And she told me about how Young's program changed her life.

I knew without any doubt what I needed to do. I immediately changed my diet and began to observe a regimen against fungi and replacing them with beneficial flora. Within two months, I was no longer a hostage to pain. I felt much better. A huge load was thrown from my shoulders. My life only started to improve.

More details about slime - more than you ever knew and would like to know

Despite the fact that we have a tendency to associate this with a runny nose or worse, but in fact, mucus is a normal secretion. It is a clean, sticky substance that the body produces to protect membrane surfaces. One of these methods is to cover everything you swallow, even water. Therefore, it also absorbs any toxins that come to you and in doing so it becomes thick, sticky and opaque (as we can see when we have a cold) in order to capture the toxins and remove them from the body.

Most of the food Americans eat causes this thick mucus. It either contains toxins or is destroyed in a toxic way in the digestive system (or both). The biggest culprits are dairy products, followed by animal protein, white flour, processed foods, chocolate, coffee, and alcoholic beverages. (Vegetables don't cause this sticky mucus.) Over time, this food can coat the intestines with thick mucus that traps feces and other waste. This mucus itself is quite harmful as it creates a favorable environment for the growth of harmful microforms.

Emotional stress, pollution, lack of exercise, lack of digestive enzymes, and lack of probiotics in the small and large intestines all contribute to the accumulation of mucus on the colon wall. With the accumulation of mucus, the transit time of materials through the lower intestine increases. Low level fiber in your diet reduces it even more. Once the sticky mass begins to adhere to the wall of the colon, a pocket forms between this mass and the wall, which is the ideal home for microforms. The material gradually adds itself to the mucus until most of it stops moving completely. The large intestine absorbs the liquid that remains, the accumulated mass begins to harden and the house harmful organisms becomes a fortress.

Heartburn, gas, bloating, ulcers, nausea, and gastritis (irritation of the intestinal wall from gas and acid) are all the result of overgrowth of microorganisms in gastrointestinal tract.

The same goes for constipation, which is not only an unpleasant symptom, but also causes more problems and symptoms. Constipation is often detected as or is accompanied by symptoms such as coated tongue, diarrhea, colic, gas, foul odor, intestinal pain, and various forms inflammations such as colitis and diverticulitis (We've all heard the judgment that your goodness doesn't stink. But the truth is, it doesn't have to be that way. If you feel a stench, then nature is warning you).

Even worse, microforms can actually penetrate the colon wall into the bloodstream. This means not only that microforms have access to the entire body, but also that they bring their toxins and intestinal matter into the bloodstream with them. From there, they can quickly travel and gain a foothold anywhere in the body, quite quickly capturing cells, tissues and organs. All this seriously affects the immune system and the liver. Untested microforms penetrate deeper into tissues and organs, the central nervous system, skeletal structure, lymphatic system and Bone marrow.

It's not just about the purity of the paths. This type of blockage can affect all parts of the body because it interferes with automatic reflexes and sends out inappropriate signals. A reflex is a neural pathway in which the impulse travels from the point of stimulation to the point of response without passing through the brain (this is when the doctor hits your knee with a small rubber mallet and your lower leg moves by itself). Reflexes can also respond in places that are not stimulated. Your body is a lot of reflexes. Some of the key ones are found in the lower intestine. They are connected to every system in the body through neural pathways. Compressed substances like a squadron of small rubber hammers hit everywhere, sending destructive impulses to other parts of the body (this example is the main cause of headaches). This in itself can disrupt and weaken any or all of the body's systems. The body creates mucus as a natural defense against acid to bind and flush it out of the body. So slime is not a bad thing. In fact, it saves our lives! For example, when you eat dairy products, milk sugar is fermented into lactic acid, which is then bound by mucus. If it weren't for the mucus, the acid could burn a hole in your cells, tissues, or organs (if not for dairy products, there would be no need for mucus). If food continues to be overly acidic, too much mucus is created and the mixture of mucus and acid becomes sticky and stagnant, leading to poor digestion, cold hands, cold feet, lightheadedness, nasal congestion, congestion in the lungs (like asthma), and constant throat clearing ...

Restoring health

We must re-fill our digestive tract with the probiotics that inhabit it. With proper nutrition, their normal population will be restored. You can help with this process with probiotic supplements.

These supplements have been so much praised in some places that you might think they are a cure-all. But they won't work on their own. You can't just pick up and throw cultures into the intestines without making the necessary dietary changes to maintain pH balance, or they will just transit. Or they could stay with you. You should prepare the environment as much as possible (more on that later in the book) before taking probiotic supplements.

When choosing a supplement, keep in mind that the small and large intestines contain different dominant bacteria, since each organ serves a different purpose and has a different medium (acidic or alkaline) - for example, for the good bacteria lactobacillus ( lactic acid bacteria) requires an alkaline environment in the small intestine, and bifidobacteria thrive in a moderately acidic environment in the large intestine.

No bacteria in your gut will be effective until you make the necessary changes. Even if you don't, bacteria can still improve the environment along the way, helping the good bacteria that already live there grow. They need to stay alive after the digestive process, which is why the best foods are projected for this purpose. If you took bifidobacterium by mouth, then it would have to go a particularly long way through the small intestine to the large intestine. But bifidobacteria cannot survive in the alkaline environment of the small intestine and must therefore be taken through the rectum using an enema. Moreover, you must take lactobacilli and bifidobacteria separately, as they can extinguish one another if taken together (unless bifidobacteria are taken through the rectum).

Another way is prebiotics (a special food that feeds on probiotics), which promote the development of the "friendly" bacteria that you have in your body. A family of carbohydrates called fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS) feeds especially bifidobacteria as well as lactobacilli. They can be taken as a supplement alone or as part of a formula. You can also get them directly from the source itself: asparagus, Jerusalem artichoke (ground pear, Jerusalem artichoke), beets, onions, garlic, chicory.

In any case, each individual situation is different in its own way. If you have any doubts that you are not acting correctly or that it is not working as it should, then consult an experienced healthcare professional.

In addition to improving your overall health and weight loss, following this program will cleanse your intestines and restore probiotics, as well as normalize your pH levels. As you can now see, everything is intertwined. Once the pH of your blood and tissues is normalized and your intestines are cleansed, nutrient absorption and waste elimination are also normalized and you are on your way to full and brilliant health.

Kate's story

I was on a diet low in fat and sugar, and despite the fact that I wanted to lose weight, I simply could not reduce the amount of food I ate. Every time I did this, I was attacked by fatigue. By removing the foods recommended in this program from food (I needed to get rid of meat, except for moderate amounts of fish, yeast foods, dairy products, refined white flour products and most fruits) and continue to eat about the same number of calories and never feel hungry , I lost 16 kg, which I could not throw off while on a traditional diet and exercise.

My husband is a doctor and when he saw my results, he began to study this program, and then he also changed his diet.

www.alpha-being.com

Features of digestion in the small and large intestine.

In the small intestine, acidic chyme is mixed with alkaline secretions of the pancreas, intestinal glands and liver, depolymerization of nutrients to end products (monomers) that can enter the bloodstream, chyme movement in the distal direction, excretion of metabolites, etc.

Digestion in the small intestine.

Cavity and parietal digestion is carried out by enzymes of pancreatic secretions and intestinal juice with the participation of bile. The resulting pancreatic juice enters the duodenum through the excretory duct system. The composition and properties of pancreatic juice depend on the quantity and quality of food.

A person produces 1.5-2.5 liters of pancreatic juice per day, isotonic to blood plasma, alkaline reaction (pH 7.5-8.8). This reaction is due to the content of bicarbonate ions, which neutralize acidic gastric contents and create in the duodenum alkaline environment, optimal for the action of pancreatic enzymes.

Pancreatic juice contains enzymes for the hydrolysis of all types of nutrients: proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Proteolytic enzymes enter the duodenum in the form of inactive proenzymes - trypsinogens, chymotrypsinogens, procarbooxypeptidases A and B, elastases, etc., which are activated by enterokinase (an enzyme of enterocytes of Brunner's glands).

The pancreatic juice contains lipolytic enzymes, which are secreted in an inactive (pro-phospholipase A) and active (lipase) state.

Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes neutral fats to fatty acids and monoglycerides, phospholipase A breaks down phospholipids to fatty acids and calcium ions.

Pancreatic alpha-amylase breaks down starch and glycogen, mainly into lysaccharides and, in part, monosaccharides. Disaccharides further, under the influence of maltase and lactase, are converted into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose).

Hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid occurs under the influence of pancreatic ribonuclease, and hydrolysis of deoxyribonucleic acid - under the influence of deocene ribonuclease.

The secretory cells of the pancreas outside the period of digestion are at rest and separate the juice only in connection with the periodic activity of the gastrointestinal tract. In response to the consumption of protein and carbohydrate food (meat, bread), there is a sharp increase in secretion in the first two hours, with a maximum separation of juice in the second hour after eating. In this case, the duration of secretion can be from 4-5 hours (meat) to 9-10 hours (bread). When fatty foods are consumed, the maximum rise in secretion occurs in the third hour, the duration of secretion for this stimulus is 5 hours.

Thus, the amount and composition of pancreatic secretions depend on the amount and quality of food, and are controlled by the receptive cells of the intestine, and primarily of the duodenum. The functional relationship of the pancreas, duodenum and liver with the bile ducts is based on the commonality of their innervation and hormonal regulation.

The secretion of the pancreas occurs under the influence of neural influences and humoral stimuli that arise when food enters the digestive tract, as well as when food enters the digestive tract, as well as when the food smells, smells, and when the usual environment of its intake operates. The process of separating pancreatic juice is conventionally divided into cerebral, gastric and intestinal complex reflex phases. The entry of food into the oral cavity and pharynx causes reflex excitement of the digestive glands, including the secretion of the pancreas.

Pancreatic secretion is stimulated by HCI and food digestion products entering the duodenum. Its stimulation continues with the flow of bile. However, the pancreas in this phase of secretion is mainly stimulated by the intestinal hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. Under the influence of secretin, a large amount of pancreatic juice is produced, rich in bicarbonates and poor in enzymes, cholecystokinin stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice, rich in enzymes. Enzyme-rich pancreatic juice is secreted only with the combined action of secretin and cholecystokinin on the gland. potentiated with acetylcholine.

The role of bile in digestion.

Bile in the duodenum creates favorable conditions for the activity of pancreatic enzymes, especially lipases. Bile acids emulsify fats, reducing the surface tension of fat droplets, which creates conditions for the formation of fine particles that can be absorbed without preliminary hydrolysis, and contribute to an increase in the contact of fats with lipolytic enzymes. Bile provides absorption in the small intestine of water-insoluble higher fatty acids, cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins (D, E, K, A) and calcium salts, enhances hydrolysis and absorption of proteins and carbohydrates, promotes the resynthesis of triglycerides in enterocytes.

Bile has a stimulating effect on the activity of intestinal villi, as a result of which the rate of absorption of substances in the intestine increases, participates in parietal digestion, creating favorable conditions for the fixation of enzymes on the intestinal surface. Bile is one of the stimulants of the secretion of the pancreas, the juice of the small intestine, gastric mucus, along with enzymes, it participates in the processes of intestinal digestion, prevents the development of putrefactive processes, has a bacteriostatic effect on the intestinal flora. The daily secretion of bile in humans is 0.7-1.0 liters. Its constituent parts are bile acids, bilirubin, cholesterol, inorganic salts, fatty acids and neutral fats, lecithin.

The role of the secretion of the glands of the small intestine in digestion.

A person excretes up to 2.5 liters of intestinal juice per day, which is the product of the activity of cells of the entire mucous membrane of the small intestine, Brunner's and Lieberkun's glands. The separation of intestinal juice is associated with the death of glandular marks. The continuous rejection of dead cells is accompanied by their intense neoplasm. The intestinal juice contains enzymes involved in digestion. They hydrolyze peptides and peptones to amino acids, fats to glycerol and fatty acids, and carbohydrates to monosaccharides. An important enzyme in the intestinal juice is enterokinase, which activates pancreatic trypsinogen.

Digestion in the small intestine is a three-link system of food assimilation: cavity digestion - membrane digestion - absorption. Cavity digestion in the small intestine is carried out due to digestive secretions and their enzymes that enter the cavity of the small intestine (pancreatic secretion, bile, intestinal juice) and act on a food substance that has undergone an enzymatic treatment in the stomach.

The enzymes involved in membrane digestion are of various origins. Some of them are absorbed from the cavity of the small intestine (enzymes of pancreatic and intestinal juice), others, fixed on the cytoplasmic membranes of microvilli, are the secretion of enterocytes and work longer than those that came from the intestinal cavity. The main chemical stimulant of the secretory cells of the glands of the mucous membrane of the small intestine are the products of protein digestion from gastric and pancreatic juices, as well as fatty acids, disaccharides. The action of each chemical irritant causes the secretion of intestinal juice with a certain set of enzymes. For example, fatty acids stimulate the formation of lipase by the intestinal glands, a diet with a reduced protein content leads to a sharp decrease in the activity of enterokinase in the intestinal juice. However, not all intestinal enzymes are involved in the processes of specific enzymatic adaptation. The formation of lipase in the intestinal mucosa does not change with either increased or decreased fat content in food. The production of peptidases also does not undergo significant changes, even with a sharp lack of protein in the diet.

Features of digestion in the small intestine.

The functional unit is the crypt and the villus. The villus is an outgrowth of the intestinal mucosa, the crypt is, on the contrary, a deepening.

INTESTINAL JUICE weakly alkaline (pH = 7.5-8), consists of two parts:

(a) the liquid part of the juice (water, salt, without enzymes) is secreted by crypt cells;

(b) the dense part of the juice ("mucous lumps") consists of epithelial cells, which are continuously exfoliated from the top of the villi (the entire mucous membrane of the small intestine is completely renewed in 3-5 days).

The dense part contains more than 20 enzymes. Part of the enzymes are adsorbed on the surface of the glycocalyx (intestinal, pancreatic enzymes), the other part of the enzymes is part of the cell membrane of microvilli .. (Microvillus is an outgrowth of the cell membrane of enterocytes. Microvilli form a "brush border", which significantly increases the area on which hydrolysis and suction). Enzymes are highly specialized, essential for the final stages of hydrolysis.

In the small intestine, cavity and parietal digestion takes place.

b) Parietal digestion - the cleavage of oligomers to monomers on the surface of microvilli under the action of enzymes fixed on this surface.

The tissues of a living organism are very sensitive to fluctuations in the pH value - outside the permissible range, denaturation of proteins occurs: cells are destroyed, enzymes lose their ability to perform their functions, the death of the organism is possible

What is pH (pH) and acid-base balance

The ratio of acid and alkali in any solution is called acid-base equilibrium(AChR), although physiologists believe that it is more correct to call this ratio the acid-base state.

KShR is characterized by a special indicator NS(power Hydrogen - "power of hydrogen"), which shows the number of hydrogen atoms in a given solution. At a pH of 7.0, one speaks of a neutral medium.

The lower the pH level, the more acidic the environment (from 6.9 to O).

An alkaline medium has a high pH level (from 7.1 to 14.0).

The human body is 70% water, so water is one of the most important parts of it. T atea person has a certain acid-base ratio, characterized by pH (hydrogen) index.

The pH value depends on the ratio between positively charged ions (forming an acidic medium) and negatively charged ions (forming an alkaline medium).

The body constantly strives to balance this ratio by maintaining a strictly defined pH level. When the balance is imbalanced, many serious illnesses can occur.

Maintain the correct pH balance for good health

The body is able to properly assimilate and store minerals and nutrients only with the proper level of acid-base balance. The tissues of a living organism are very sensitive to fluctuations in pH - outside the permissible range, denaturation of proteins occurs: cells are destroyed, enzymes lose their ability to perform their functions, the death of the organism is possible. Therefore, the acid-base balance in the body is tightly regulated.

Our body uses hydrochloric acid to break down food. In the process of vital activity of the body, both acidic and alkaline decomposition products are required., and the former are formed more than the latter. Therefore, the body's defense systems, which ensure the invariability of its acid-base balance, are "tuned" first of all to neutralize and remove, first of all, acidic decay products.

The blood has a slightly alkaline reaction: The pH of arterial blood is 7.4, and that of venous blood is 7.35 (due to excess CO2).

A shift in pH by at least 0.1 can lead to severe pathology.

With a shift in blood pH by 0.2, a coma develops, by 0.3 - a person dies.

The body has different PH levels

Saliva - predominantly alkaline reaction (pH fluctuation 6.0 - 7.9)

Typically, the acidity of mixed human saliva is 6.8–7.4 pH, but at high salivation rates it reaches 7.8 pH. The acidity of the saliva of the parotid glands is 5.81 pH, submandibular - 6.39 pH. In children, on average, the acidity of mixed saliva is equal to pH 7.32, in adults - pH 6.40 (Rimarchuk G.V. et al.). The acid-base balance of saliva, in turn, is determined by a similar balance in the blood, which feeds the salivary glands.

Esophagus - Normal acidity in the esophagus is 6.0-7.0 pH.

Liver - the reaction of gallbladder bile is close to neutral (pH 6.5 - 6.8), the reaction of hepatic bile is alkaline (pH 7.3 - 8.2)

Stomach - sharply acidic (at the height of digestion pH 1.8 - 3.0)

The maximum theoretically possible acidity in the stomach is 0.86 pH, which corresponds to an acid production of 160 mmol / l. The minimum theoretically possible acidity in the stomach is 8.3 pH, which corresponds to the acidity of a saturated solution of HCO 3 - ions. Normal acidity in the lumen of the body of the stomach on an empty stomach is 1.5–2.0 pH. The acidity on the surface of the epithelial layer facing the stomach lumen is 1.5–2.0 pH. The acidity in the depth of the epithelial layer of the stomach is about 7.0 pH. Normal acidity in the antrum of the stomach is 1.3–7.4 pH.

It is a common misconception that the main problem for humans is the acidity of the stomach. From her heartburn and ulcers.

In fact, much big problem represents low acidity of the stomach, which occurs many times more often.

The main cause of heartburn in 95% is not an excess, but a lack of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

The lack of hydrochloric acid creates ideal conditions for the colonization of the intestinal tract by various bacteria, protozoa and worms.

The insidiousness of the situation is that the low acidity of the stomach "behaves quietly" and proceeds imperceptibly for a person.

Here is a list of signs that may indicate a decrease in gastric acidity.

• Discomfort in the stomach after eating.
• Nausea after taking medication.
• Flatulence in the small intestine.
• Loose stools or constipation.
• Undigested food particles in the stool.
• Itching around the anus.
• Multiple food allergies.
• Dysbacteriosis or candidiasis.
• Extended blood vessels on the cheeks and nose.
• Acne.
• Weak, flaking nails.
• Anemia due to poor absorption of iron.

Of course, an accurate diagnosis of low acidity requires the determination of the pH of gastric juice.(for this you need to contact a gastroenterologist).

When the acidity is increased, there are many drugs to reduce it.

In the case of low acidity, there are very few effective remedies.

As a rule, preparations of hydrochloric acid or vegetable bitterness are used, which stimulate the separation of gastric juice (wormwood, calamus, peppermint, fennel, etc.).

Pancreas - slightly alkaline pancreatic juice (pH 7.5 - 8.0)

Small intestine - alkaline reaction (pH 8.0)

Normal acidity in the duodenal bulb is 5.6–7.9 pH. The acidity in the jejunum and ileum is neutral or slightly alkaline and ranges from 7 to 8 pH. The acidity of the juice of the small intestine is 7.2–7.5 pH. With increased secretion, the pH reaches 8.6. The acidity of the secretion of the duodenal glands is from pH 7 to pH 8.

Large intestine - slightly acidic reaction (5.8 - 6.5 pH)

This is a weakly acidic environment, which is supported by normal microflora, in particular, bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and propionobacteria due to the fact that they neutralize alkaline metabolic products and produce their acidic metabolites - lactic acid and other organic acids. By producing organic acids and lowering the pH of intestinal contents, normal microflora creates conditions under which pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms cannot multiply. This is why streptococci, staphylococci, Klebsiella, Clostridium fungi and other “bad” bacteria make up only 1% of the total intestinal microflora of a healthy person.

Urine - predominantly slightly acidic reaction (pH 4.5-8)

When eating food with animal proteins containing sulfur and phosphorus, mainly acidic urine is excreted (pH less than 5); the final urine contains a significant amount of inorganic sulfates and phosphates. If the food is mainly dairy or vegetable, then the urine tends to alkalize (pH> 7). The renal tubules play a significant role in maintaining acid-base balance. Acidic urine will be excreted in all conditions leading to metabolic or respiratory acidosis, as the kidneys compensate for the acid-base state shifts.

Skin - slightly acidic reaction (pH 4-6)

If the skin is prone to oily, the pH value can approach 5.5. And if the skin is very dry, the pH can be 4.4.

The bactericidal property of the skin, which gives it the ability to resist microbial invasion, is due to the acidic reaction of keratin, a peculiar chemical composition sebum and sweat, the presence on its surface of a protective water-lipid mantle with high concentration hydrogen ions. The low molecular weight fatty acids included in its composition, primarily glycophospholipids and free fatty acids, have a bacteriostatic effect that is selective for pathogenic microorganisms.

Genitals

The normal acidity of a woman's vagina ranges from 3.8 to 4.4 pH and averages 4.0–4.2 pH.

At birth, the girl's vagina is sterile. Then, within a few days, it is colonized by a variety of bacteria, mainly staphylococci, streptococci, anaerobes (that is, bacteria that do not require oxygen to live). Before the onset of menstruation, the acidity (pH) of the vagina is close to neutral (7.0). But during puberty, the walls of the vagina thicken (under the influence of estrogen - one of the female sex hormones), the pH drops to 4.4 (i.e., the acidity rises), which causes changes in the vaginal flora.

The uterine cavity is normally sterile, and the entry of pathogens into it is prevented by lactobacilli that colonize the vagina and maintain the high acidity of its environment. If, for some reason, the acidity of the vagina shifts towards alkaline, the number of lactobacilli drops sharply, and other microbes develop in their place, which can enter the uterus and lead to inflammation, and then to problems with pregnancy.

Sperm

Normal sperm acidity ranges from 7.2 to 8.0 pH. An increase in the pH of the semen occurs during an infectious process. A sharply alkaline sperm reaction (acidity approximately 9.0-10.0 pH) indicates pathology prostate... With blockage of the excretory ducts of both seminal vesicles, an acidic reaction of the sperm is noted (acidity 6.0-6.8 pH). The fertilizing capacity of such sperm is reduced. In an acidic environment, sperm lose their mobility and die. If the acidity of the semen becomes less than 6.0 pH, the sperm completely lose motility and die.

Cells and intercellular fluid

In the cells of the body, pH is about 7, in the extracellular fluid - 7.4. Nerve endings outside of cells are very sensitive to changes in pH. With mechanical or thermal damage to tissues, cell walls are destroyed and their contents enter the nerve endings. As a result, the person feels pain.

The Scandinavian researcher Olaf Lindahl performed the following experiment: using a special needleless injector, a very thin stream of solution was injected through the skin to a person, which did not damage cells, but acted on nerve endings. It was shown that it is hydrogen cations that cause pain, and with a decrease in the pH of the solution, the pain increases.

Similarly, a solution of formic acid, which stinging insects or nettles are injected under the skin, directly "acts on the nerves". Different pH values ​​of tissues also explain why a person feels pain in some inflammations, but not in others.

Interestingly, injecting pure water under the skin caused particularly severe pain. This phenomenon, strange at first glance, is explained as follows: cells upon contact with clean water rupture as a result of osmotic pressure and their contents affect the nerve endings.

Table 1. Hydrogen indicators for solutions

Fish eggs and fry are especially sensitive to changes in the pH of the medium. The table allows a number of interesting observations to be made. The pH values, for example, immediately show the comparative strength of acids and bases. A strong change in the neutral medium is also clearly seen as a result of hydrolysis of salts formed by weak acids and bases, as well as during the dissociation of acid salts.

Urine pH is not a good indicator of overall body pH, nor is it a good indicator of overall health.

In other words, no matter what you eat and whatever the pH of your urine, you can be absolutely certain that your arterial pH will always be around 7.4.

When a person eats, for example, acidic foods or animal protein, under the influence of buffer systems, the pH shifts to the acidic side (becomes less than 7), and when consumed, for example, mineral water or plant foods, to alkaline (becomes more than 7). Buffering systems keep the pH within the acceptable range for the body.

By the way, doctors say that we tolerate a shift to the acid side (the same acidosis) much easier than a shift to the alkaline side (alkalosis).

It is impossible to shift the pH of the blood by any external influence.

THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF BLOOD PH MAINTENANCE ARE:

1. Buffer systems of blood (carbonate, phosphate, protein, hemoglobin)

This mechanism acts very quickly (fractions of a second) and therefore refers to the fast mechanisms of regulation of the stability of the internal environment.

Bicarbonate blood buffer powerful enough and most mobile.

One of the important buffers of blood and other body fluids is the bicarbonate buffer system (HCO3 / CO2): CO2 + H2O ⇄ HCO3- + H + The main function of the bicarbonate buffer system of the blood is to neutralize H + ions. This buffer system plays a particularly important role since the concentrations of both buffer components can be adjusted independently of each other; [CO2] - by breathing, - in the liver and kidneys. Thus, it is an open buffer system.

The hemoglobin buffer system is the most powerful.
It accounts for more than half of the buffer capacity of the blood. The buffering properties of hemoglobin are due to the ratio of reduced hemoglobin (HHb) and its potassium salt (KHb).

Plasma proteins due to the ability of amino acids to ionize, they also perform a buffer function (about 7% of the buffer capacity of the blood). In an acidic environment, they behave like acid-binding bases.

Phosphate buffer system(about 5% of the buffer capacity of the blood) is formed by inorganic phosphates of the blood. The properties of an acid are manifested by monobasic phosphate (NaH 2 P0 4), and bases - by dibasic phosphate (Na 2 HP0 4). They function in the same way as bicarbonates. However, due to the low content of phosphates in the blood, the capacity of this system is small.

2. Respiratory (pulmonary) regulation system.

The ease with which the lungs regulate CO2 concentration provides this system with significant buffering capacity. Removal of excess amounts of CO 2, regeneration of bicarbonate and hemoglobin buffer systems are carried out by the lungs.

At rest, a person secretes 230 ml carbon dioxide per minute, or about 15 thousand mmol per day. When carbon dioxide is removed from the blood, an approximately equivalent amount of hydrogen ions disappears. Therefore, breathing plays an important role in maintaining acid-base balance. So, if the acidity of the blood increases, then an increase in the content of hydrogen ions leads to an increase in pulmonary ventilation (hyperventilation), while the molecules of carbon dioxide are excreted in large quantities and the pH returns to normal levels.

An increase in the content of bases is accompanied by hypoventilation, as a result of which the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and, accordingly, the concentration of hydrogen ions, and the shift in the reaction of the blood to the alkaline side is partially or completely compensated.

Therefore, the external respiration system rather quickly (within a few minutes) is able to eliminate or reduce pH shifts and prevent the development of acidosis or alkalosis: increasing ventilation of the lungs by 2 times raises blood pH by about 0.2; reducing ventilation by 25% can reduce the pH by 0.3-0.4.

3. Renal (excretory system)

Acts very slowly (10-12 hours). But this mechanism is the most powerful and is able to completely restore the body's pH by removing urine with alkaline or acidic pH values. The participation of the kidneys in maintaining acid-base balance consists in the removal of hydrogen ions from the body, reabsorption of bicarbonate from the tubular fluid, synthesis of bicarbonate in case of its deficiency and removal in case of excess.

The main mechanisms for reducing or eliminating shifts in blood acid-base balance, realized by the nephrons of the kidneys, include acidogenesis, ammoniogenesis, secretion of phosphates and K +, Ka + -exchange mechanism.

The mechanism of regulation of blood pH in the whole organism consists in the combined action of external respiration, blood circulation, excretion and buffer systems. So, if, as a result of the increased formation of H 2 CO 3 or other acids, excess anions appear, then they are first neutralized by buffer systems. At the same time, breathing and blood circulation are intensified, which leads to an increase in the release of carbon dioxide from the lungs. Non-volatile acids, in turn, are excreted in urine or sweat.

Normally, the pH of the blood can only change for a short time. Naturally, with damage to the lungs or kidneys, the body's functionality to maintain the pH at the proper level decreases. If a large amount of acidic or basic ions appears in the blood, only buffer mechanisms (without the help of excretory systems) will not keep the pH at a constant level. This leads to acidosis or alkalosis. published

© Olga Butakova "Acid-alkaline balance is the basis of life"