In the ancient world, Egypt occupies a special place precisely due to the fact that science was quite well developed in the country. A large number of papyri found indicates the high literacy of the people inhabiting the territory of this country.

In Ancient Egypt, the most perfect writing system for that time was invented.

Herodotus drew attention to the development of medicine. There were a lot of doctors in the country.

The Egyptians achieved special results in astronomy. They were the first to map the starry sky.

Egyptian mathematics influenced the science of other ancient peoples. The same Herodotus believed that geometry was invented in Egypt. The Greek mathematician Archimedes studied in Egypt for many years.

The civilization of Ancient Egypt left the most striking mark of all the cultures of the Ancient World. The Egyptians created a centralized state already in the 3rd millennium BC. Egypt lost its independence as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 3rd century BC. But over the past several millennia, the Egyptians have learned a lot about the world around them, they first acquired scientific knowledge about space and our planet.

What did the Egyptians know about the world around them?

To understand what scientific knowledge arose among the Egyptians, one should understand the features of their civilization. Egypt was created along the course of the Nile River before its confluence with the Mediterranean Sea. The people of Egypt depended on the annual floods of the Nile for fertile soil. Based on this, it is possible to single out the basic scientific knowledge that arose from the Egyptians:

• they created irrigation canal systems. This means that the Egyptians understood the basics of agriculture. The created system of irrigation canals made it possible to avoid hunger. Consequently, the scientific approach to agriculture determined the prosperity of all of Egypt;
• the pyramids and the Sphinx they built are still amazing. The Egyptians could move multi-ton boulders and build large-scale architectural objects. Therefore, architecture has a special place among their scientific knowledge. At the same time, the pyramids were also located along the Nile River;
• Egyptian priests watched the stars move, the changes in the sky. They learned that the year consists of 365 days, that the stars change their position in the firmament. The Egyptians believed that stargazing gave them knowledge about the afterlife, where the pharaohs fell after their death. However, knowledge of space and natural phenomena gave them the ability to predict solar eclipses, which was used in priestly rituals.

In fact, many sciences got their start precisely in Ancient Egypt.

What became of the scientific knowledge of the Egyptians

Scientific knowledge has not disappeared. The priests continued to observe the stars and other cosmic bodies until the early Middle Ages. Their knowledge was adopted by other civilizations. It became known to the Greeks and Romans and they often used it.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian

Federation

FSBEI HE "Siberian State Technological University"

Department of Russian History and Cultural Studies

ESSAY

Ancient Egyptian Science

Prepared by a student

Correspondence department

Fleishman L.E. 1527013

Checked by I.A. Cherkasov

Krasnoyarsk 2016

Plan

Introduction

1. Mathematics

3. Medicine

4. Astronomy

Conclusion

List of sources and literature used

Introduction

mathematics chemistry astronomical medicine

Science in the East, since ancient times, has remained an area of ​​application of knowledge for solving only practical problems related to economics and technology, on the one hand, and administrative activities, on the other. Eastern science was fundamentally different from European and, from the point of view of the latter, it was not such at all. It was mainly of a religious and moral character, was associated with human sensory experience and did not need an experiment. Its main problems lay in the humanitarian sphere and closely linked with religious ideology, philosophical "wisdom", the sphere of esoteric knowledge.

Much of the scientific heritage of the ancient Egyptians has come down to our days indirectly - in the retellings of Greek historians and philosophers who found the culture of Ancient Egypt in a late period, at the stage of slow extinction. This information was often incomplete, covered with a veil of secrecy, like almost everything related to Egypt in the Greco-Roman era. This mystery is largely due to the fact that the keepers of the scientific tradition were the priests, and science was closely intertwined with religion. Many knowledge, especially those that had a certain sacred meaning, were carefully guarded and were available only to a select few. The scanty Egyptian written sources testify to an extremely strong oral tradition - scientific texts are extremely scarce, and those that have survived to this day are often almost indecipherable, their meaning is obscure and, most likely, encrypted. Nevertheless, evaluating the culture of Ancient Egypt, one can be sure that the Egyptians made many discoveries in many fundamental fields of science. The irrigation system and pyramids are evidence of highly developed engineering and geometry, the art of embalming is proof of the practical achievements of ancient Egyptian chemists and doctors.

1. Mathematics

In the field of scientific knowledge, the greatest development in Dr. Egypt got mathematics as an applied science. The construction of temples and tombs, the measurement of land areas and the calculation of taxes required, above all, a system of calculation; this was the beginning of the development of mathematics. Measuring round areas and cylindrical volumes required the calculation of the square root. It can be concluded that Egyptian mathematics arose from the needs of the office work and economic activities of the Egyptians. The Egyptians used a decimal non-positional counting system, in which they used special signs to designate the numbers 1, 10, 100 - up to 1 million. Operated with simple fractions only with the numerator 1.

Egyptian numbers were invented in ancient times, apparently, simultaneously with writing. They are pretty straightforward. Small vertical bars were used to write numbers from one to nine. A sign resembling a bracket or a horseshoe was used to designate 10. The image of a rounded rope was used to write the concept 100. The stem of a lotus flower meant 1000. A raised human finger corresponded to 10,000. The image of a tadpole was a symbol of 100,000. The figure of a squatting deity with raised arms denoted 1,000,000. Thus, the Egyptians used a decimal numbering system, in which ten signs of the lowest row could be replaced with one sign of the next degree.

The Egyptians knew how to multiply and divide, but these actions were performed in a rather laborious way. Division was "reverse multiplication." To divide one number by another, you had to figure out how much to multiply the divisor to get the dividend. The multiplication used by the Egyptian mathematicians was consistent. So, the action "5x6" looked like (5x2) + (5x2) + (5x2).

Despite the fact that determining the area of ​​figures of various configurations was a common task for geometers, the Egyptians did not have in their arsenal the number "pi", which was introduced much later only by Greek mathematicians.

Mathematics had not only practical but also artistic application. Some of the Egyptian murals retain traces of preparatory work. The thin lines of the grid drawn under the drawing showed that the artist traced the plane into squares and inscribed into these squares piece by piece. This technique testifies, in addition to the ingenuity of the technical solution and the mathematical thoughtfulness of the composition, that the Egyptians studied proportions well and actively used them in painting.

The ancient Egyptians also possessed some elementary knowledge in the field of algebra - they were able to solve equations with one and two unknowns.

Geometry was at a high enough level for that time. Pyramids, palaces and sculptural monuments were built with a high degree of precision. In the "Moscow Mathematical Papyrus" there are solutions to difficult problems to calculate the volume of the truncated pyramid and hemisphere. The volume of a cylinder was calculated by multiplying its base area by its height. This operation, associated with the cylindrical shape of the grain measure, was used to account for grain in state storage facilities. The Egyptians of the period of the Middle Kingdom already use the number "Pi", taking it equal to 3.16, and in general, errors in calculating the areas of spherical surfaces do not go beyond the permissible limits.

Apparently, already in the era of the Old Kingdom (“The periodization of the history of dynastic Egypt from the semi-legendary king Menes to Alexander the Great, from about the 30th century BC until the end of the 4th century BC, is closely related to the Manetho tradition. Manetho, a priest who lived in Egypt shortly after the campaign of A. the Macedonian, wrote in Greek a two-volume “History of Egypt.” Unfortunately, only excerpts from his works have survived, the earliest of which are found in the works of historians of the 1st century AD. But what has come down to us, often in a distorted form, is extremely important, because these are excerpts from the book of a person who described the history of his country, based on well-accessible Egyptian documents. Manetho divided the entire history of dynastic Egypt into three large periods - Ancient , Middle and New kingdoms; each of the named kingdoms is divided into dynasties, ten for each kingdom, - a total of 30 dynasties "), the system of measures of length adopted in Egypt during the entire existence of the Egyptian kingdom is also established. This system of measures was based on the proportions of the human body. The main unit of measurement was the elbow (equal to 52.3 cm) - a value equal to the distance from the elbow to the fingertips. Seven palms with a splint of 4 fingers each equaled one elbow. The elbow also had divisions (equal to the width of one finger), which, in turn, consisted of smaller parts. The main measure of the area was considered to be "section", equal to 100 sq. elbows. The main measure of weight "Deben" corresponded to approximately 91 g.

The surviving mathematical texts of Dr. Egypt (1st half of the 2nd millennium BC) consist mainly of examples for solving problems and, at best, recipes for solving them, which sometimes can be understood only by analyzing the numerical examples given in the texts ... We should talk specifically about recipes for solving certain types of problems, because a mathematical theory in the sense of proving general theorems apparently did not exist at all. This is evidenced, for example, by the fact that exact solutions were used without significant differences from approximate ones. Nevertheless, the very stock of established mathematical facts was, in accordance with the high construction technique, the complexity of land relations, the need, and the exact calendar, etc., was quite large.

2. Chemistry

Chemistry in Ancient Egypt is an exclusively applied science, and it had a partly sacred character. The main area of ​​application of chemical knowledge is the embalming of the dead within the framework of the cult of the dead. The need to preserve the body in order during the eternal afterlife required the creation of reliable embalming compounds that did not allow rotting and decomposition of tissues.

The chemistry of the ancient Egyptians-embalmers is all sorts of resins and saline solutions, in which the body was first soaked, and then soaked through and through with them. The saturation of mummies with balms was sometimes so high that the tissues were charred over the centuries. This, in particular, happened to the mummy of Pharaoh Tutankhamun - the fatty acid contained in aromatic oils and balms caused complete carbonization of the tissues, so that only the famous coffin of pure gold retained the appearance of the pharaoh.

Another aspect of the application of chemical knowledge is glassmaking. Faience jewelry, colored glass beads are the most important branch of the jewelry art of the ancient Egyptians. The rich color gamut of jewelry that fell into the hands of archaeologists convincingly demonstrates the ability of Egyptian glassmakers to use a variety of mineral and organic additives for dyeing raw materials.

The same can be said about leatherworking and weaving. The Egyptians learned to tan leather in ancient times and used for this purpose natural tannin, which is rich in the seeds of the acacia growing in Egypt. Various natural dyes were also used in the manufacture of fabrics - linen and woolen. The main colors are blue, for which indigo paint was used, and yellow. The richest color palette was used by Egyptian artists: paintings from the times of the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms, preserved until your time in the dry air of burial chambers. They have not lost their color at all, which perfectly characterizes the quality of the dyes used by the Egyptians.

3. The medicine

The Egyptians received extensive medical knowledge from the practice of embalming corpses, which led to an acquaintance with the internal structure of the human body. In the era of the Old Kingdom, individual medical observations obtained empirically were subjected to selection and classification, on the basis of which the first medical treatises appeared. Ten main medical papyri have survived to us, which got their name either from the name of the first owners, or from the names of the cities where they are stored. Of these, two are of the greatest value - the Ebers Large Medical Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus.

The Ebers papyrus was discovered in one of the Theban tombs in 1872 and dated to the period of the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep I (XVI century BC). This papyrus contains over forty texts on medicine. It contains many recipes and prescriptions for the treatment of various diseases, gives advice on how to escape from insect and animal bites; the cosmetics section contains instructions on how to get rid of wrinkles, remove moles, enhance hair growth, etc. All medical prescriptions, without exception, are accompanied by appropriate magic spells and conspiracies for each specific case. Various plants (onions, garlic, lotus, flax, poppy, dates, grapes), minerals (antimony, soda, sulfur, clay, lead, saltpeter), organic substances (processed animal organs, blood, milk ). Medicines were usually prepared in the form of infusions with milk, honey, and beer.

Egyptian physicians treated various fevers, dysentery, dropsy, rheumatism, heart disease, liver disease, respiratory tract disease, diabetes, most stomach diseases, ulcers, etc.

Edwin Smith's papyrus lists various injuries: head, throat, collarbone, chest, spine. Egyptian surgeons dared to perform rather complex operations. As evidenced by the finds in the tombs, they used surgical instruments made of bronze. Throughout the ancient world, the Egyptians were rightly considered the best doctors, and in particular surgeons. They knew herbs and their medicinal properties, were able in many cases to make an accurate diagnosis, used morphine, used methods of treatment tested in practice. The lack of knowledge was made up for with magic and witchcraft, which also often turned out to be useful (at least psychologically). Some of the means and methods of treatment used by ancient Egyptian doctors are used in modern medicine.

Egyptian doctors were taught, first of all, to identify the symptoms of the disease, and then to carry out examinations and tests. They were instructed to record their observations and examinations in detail. There is information that the Egyptian doctors had to say after the examination whether they could cure the patient or not. Sometimes they did surgery. Surgeons calcined their instruments on a fire before the operation and tried to keep the patient and everything around him as clean as possible.

Ancient Egyptian doctors enjoyed such high prestige in the Middle East that they sometimes went to neighboring countries at the invitation of their rulers. One of the murals in a New Kingdom tomb shows a foreign prince who came to Egypt with his entire family to consult an Egyptian physician. Doctors received training from their senior and experienced colleagues, living for some time with their families. Apparently, there were also medical schools in Egypt. So, there is evidence of the existence of a special school for midwives. The best doctors became the court physicians of the pharaoh and his family.

Ancient Egyptian doctors were well versed in how the human body works. They had knowledge of the nervous system and the consequences of brain injuries. They knew, for example, that an injury to the right side of the skull causes paralysis on the left side of the body, and vice versa. Although they didn't quite understand the circulatory system. They only knew that the heart circulates blood in the body. They called the pulse "transmitting the messages of the heart."

The sick Egyptian did not need to know what exactly he was sick with. He was much more interested in whether the doctor could heal him. This approach to the doctor's case was reflected in the recommendations: “Tell him (ie the patient) only:“ I can cope with this disease ”, or“ I may be able to cope with this disease ”, or“ I can’t cope with this disease "but tell him right away."

Of course, the oldest and most important branch of medicine in ancient Egypt was pharmacology. Many different recipes for drugs made from plant and animal ingredients have survived to this day. In this area, science and exact knowledge especially closely interacted with magical rituals, without which ancient Egyptian medicine was not conceived at all, like the medicine of any other ancient civilization. It should be noted here that the doctors originally belonged to the class of priests. Only in a fairly late period, not earlier than the New Kingdom, medical treatises come out of the walls of scribal schools, secular institutions. Presumably as a result of the decline in temple influence following the end of the New Kingdom, medicine was largely secularized. But religion continued to play an important role in the treatment of disease, especially when it came to psychological problems. During treatment, prayers were always recited, and the more serious the illness was, the more important it was probably to say them. People often went to the temples of these gods to be healed. Doctors lived at the temples, who were also priests. In some cases, the sick were allowed to spend the night in a temple room next to the sanctuary. The Egyptians believed that a miracle could heal a sick person. If a miracle does not happen, in this case a prophetic dream will be sent to the patient, on which the doctor can base his further treatment.

4. Astronomy

Since ancient times, the main source of accumulation of scientific knowledge in Ancient Egypt was economic activity. For the competent organization of the annual agricultural cycle, it was necessary to be able to determine the arrival of the next season of the year, to predict the flood of the Nile, to make some predictions regarding the abundance of flood waters. The Egyptian priests have been observing the stars, probably since the first settlements in the Nile Valley. Over the centuries, they have accumulated a significant amount of astronomical data that made it possible to make fairly accurate meteorological forecasts - probably both long-term and short-term. Apart from the purely applied side, sky observations were also partly theoretical. So, it is known that even the astronomers of the Middle Kingdom made maps of the starry sky visible in Egypt. Such maps have been preserved in the paintings on the ceilings of some ancient Egyptian temples. In addition to Seth - Sirius, the most important star for the ancient Egyptians, Horus is present on these maps - Venus, the Evening Star. Apparently, it was from the ancient Egyptian priests that the tradition began to depict constellations on the maps of the starry sky in the form of symbolic figures. Close observation of the sky allowed the Egyptian priests to quickly learn to distinguish between stars and planets. Tables of the position of stars and celestial bodies helped Egyptian astronomers in determining the spatial position. The priests-astronomers were able to predict solar eclipses, even calculate their duration. However, this side of astronomical knowledge was the undivided secret of the high priesthood. The agricultural annual cycle has led to the need for a calendar. The ancient Egyptian solar calendar is truly a masterpiece of accuracy by ancient astronomers. By and large, it was this calendar that formed the basis of those calendars that humanity uses today. The year began in April, the day when Sirius, the star that the earliest inhabitants of the Nile Valley called Seth, rose in the dawn sky. The pre-dawn rise of Seth - Sirius foreshadowed the long-awaited rise of water in the Nile and the beginning of a new life cycle. The Egyptian year lasted 365 days. The flood cycle of the Nile dictated the division into three seasons - flood, drying up of water and silt in the fields, and drought. Each of the seasons had four months, and each month was dedicated to certain agricultural work. The months were equal, thirty days each, and were divided into three decades. The last five days were added at the end of the year to relate to the solar cycle. The disadvantage of this calendar was only that the calendar year and the solar year did not coincide completely. The ancient Egyptians did not know about the leap year, so over time, quite significant discrepancies accumulated between the solar and calendar years - one day in four years, almost a month in a century.

The Egyptian day consisted of 24 hours, and there were two types of clocks for measuring time - solar and water. In addition, at night, the time could be determined by the position of the stars, using the same astronomical tables.

The second ancient Egyptian calendar was based on the phases of the moon. Since the lunar month consists of 29.5 days, this calendar must be constantly amended. However, it continued to be used to calculate the dates of certain religious ceremonies. The first calendar, providing for the division of the year into 365 days, was introduced back in the era of the Old Kingdom, possibly by King Imhotep. Since there are 365.25 days in the year, this calendar began to gradually lag behind the date of the new year, calculated according to the position of Sopdet. After visiting Egypt, Julius Caesar ordered him to be introduced throughout the Roman Empire. A version of this calendar, known as the Julian, was used in Europe until, in the 16th century. the Gregorian calendar was not created - the same that we use today.

5. School

Time has preserved many Egyptian inscriptions and papyri. This indicates a high level of literacy among the Egyptians. There was no unified training system. Schools were located at temples and government institutions, no separate school buildings were built. There are known examples when children started going to school at the age of five.

First, they taught me how to write and read. Younger schoolchildren were given lined clay shards or flat stone slabs for writing exercises. Only older students received valuable papyrus. Each student independently prepared black and red ink. The main text was written in black, and the titles and first lines were written in red.

There were no teachers in specific subjects. It was mostly scribes who taught. It was obligatory to memorize poetry and religious works.

There were higher schools for future military men and ambassadors to other countries. In them, students were required to quickly answer such questions, for example, “How many bricks do you need to build a site of a certain size? How to place a large sculpture on a base? How many workers do you need to transport a column of a certain length and weight? " In such schools, they taught music, swimming, jumping, running. The Pharaoh was surrounded by officials with a good knowledge of foreign languages.

Thus, the ancient Egyptians were among the first to independently create a writing system that was perfect for their time, and achieved significant success in medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. Their calendar is almost the same as the one we use. They knew how to bring up educated people.

Conclusion

The needs of production, socio-economic and cultural development proper have led to the accumulation of the reality of knowledge - mathematical, astronomical, biological, medical. The written language allowed them to be recorded and passed on to future generations.

Science is the comprehension of the world in which we live. Accordingly, it is customary to define science as a highly organized and highly specialized activity for the production of objective knowledge about the world, including the person himself. At the same time, the production of knowledge in society is not self-sufficient, it is necessary for the maintenance and development of human life.

The knowledge of the Egyptians in various fields had a significant impact on the development of ancient, and therefore European, science. The Greeks have always looked at Egypt as a land of ancient wisdom and considered the Egyptians to be their teachers.

The origin of scientific knowledge in Egypt and other ancient states did not lead to the emergence of science in the proper sense of the word; we can only talk about its elements, which were used mainly for practical, utilitarian purposes. In addition, Egyptian "science" is very closely related to mythology, religion and magic.

List of sources and literature used

1. Great Soviet Encyclopedia (volumes 9 and 15). A.M. Prokhorov. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1972.

2. World history. M.A. Ksenova, S. Ismailov. - M .: Avanta +, 1993.

3. World history. Bronze Age. A. N. Badak, I. E. Voinich. - M.: AST, 2002.

4. History of the East. Volume 1: The East in Antiquity. R.B. Rybakov. - M.: Eastern Literature, 1999.

5. History of world culture. S. Karpushin, V. Karpushin. - M.: NOTA BENE, 1998.

6. World culture: the Sumerian kingdom. Babylon and Assyria. Ancient Egypt. A. Zaitsev, V. Laptaev, A. Poryaz. -M .: Olma-Press, 2000.

7. Early civilizations. Susan Peach, Anie Millard. -M .: Rosmen 1999.

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Writing of Ancient Egypt. In those days, when people did not yet know the written language, they passed on their knowledge by word of mouth. The inhabitants of Ancient Egypt began to sketch what they wanted to remember: a wavy line, for example, began to denote water, a circle - the sun, the image of legs - the word "go" and so on. So the Egyptians gave birth to writing, one of the oldest on Earth. Such drawing signs are called hieroglyphs. There were more than 700 of them in Egyptian writing!

Rice. Hieroglyphic inscription

The Egyptians wrote with pointed sticks, dipping them in black or red paint. People did not know the paper at that time, but the Egyptians had a material very similar to it - papyrus. It was made from swamp reeds. The stems of this plant were first cut into thin strips and then glued together. It turned out to be a long tape, which was used for writing. The written ribbon was folded into a scroll. These scroll books were kept in wooden cases.

Scientific knowledge of the Egyptians. The main keepers of scientific knowledge, the most literate, educated people in Ancient Egypt were the priests. Each temple had a library where they kept, studied and copied the scrolls collected over the thousand-year history of the country. The priests themselves were engaged in scientific research. They followed the heavenly bodies, studied the world around them, the structure of the bodies of animals and humans.

Many discoveries were made by the Egyptian priests, which we also use. So, for example, observing the stars, they noticed that the Nile floods begin when the bright star Sirius appears in the sky towards morning. The priests calculated that 365 days pass from one sunrise to another. Thus, the Egyptians were able to determine the length of the year. The rise of Sirius began to be considered in Egypt the beginning of a new year. The year was divided into 12 months, 30 days in each, and the unaccounted for 5 days were considered holidays. Egyptian priests not only calculated the duration of the year, but could also predict solar and lunar eclipses, the appearance of comets and much more. From such observations of celestial bodies, one of the most ancient sciences was born - astronomy.

Rice. Egyptian astronomical calendar

To make complex and accurate calculations, the priests had to study mathematics. They managed to discover many of its laws. This allowed ancient Egyptian builders and architects to erect pyramids and temples.

• What sciences you know did the ancient Egyptians need to know in order to make the calculations necessary for the construction of pyramids and temples?

The science of the study of the Earth - geography - also originated in Egypt. But the information of the ancient Egyptians about the Earth was still very inaccurate. For example, they imagined it as a rectangle with raised edges - mountains, which was surrounded by an endless ocean.

The ancient Egyptians had great knowledge of medicine. They knew how to identify the disease by the pulse and many other signs. For the treatment of diseases, doctors made complex medicines composed of herbs and medicinal substances. In Egypt, they even knew how to do surgical operations with the use of painkillers.

What and how they taught in Egyptian schools. Many educated people were required to run the huge Egyptian state. They were prepared by priests in temple schools. They studied in temple schools, as a rule, the sons of priests and wealthy Egyptians. Here they were primarily taught to read, write and count. The rules in Egyptian schools were very strict. Students were flogged for laziness and disobedience.

After the students mastered literacy and numeracy, they began to study history, geography, mathematics, astronomy, construction and medicine. After graduation, they took exams. Only those who withstood them could continue their education further. But now the student could choose one or two of his favorite subjects at will, which he would like to make his future profession. Most of the young men after graduation became scribes. It was one of the most respected and well-paid professions in ancient Egypt.

• How do you think, what duties could scribes perform in the Ancient Egyptian state?

Ancient Egyptian art. The Egyptians were wonderful artists. This is evidenced by the numerous wall paintings and reliefs that adorned temples, palaces and tombs. They depict scenes of hunting and battles, religious and court ceremonies, entertainment of nobles and scenes from the life of ordinary people. The figures and faces of people, animals and birds were depicted by Egyptian artists with extraordinary accuracy and reliability.

Rice. Scribe. Ancient egyptian sculpture

When examining the paintings, an interesting detail can be noticed: all people are drawn according to a certain pattern. Their legs and head are seen as if from the side, and their shoulders and one eye are seen from the front. The Egyptians painted them this way because they believed that images of people could come to life in the afterlife if the priests cast special spells over them. But only those images that are drawn according to the rules have the ability to come to life.

Rice. Great Sphinx. Giza

The ancient Egyptians were excellent sculptors. Many images of gods and pharaohs carved by them from stone have survived. Some of the statues are striking in their size. So, the figure of the Great Sphinx, the formidable guardian of the pyramids, was carved out of a whole rock. The Sphinx is depicted as a lion with the face of Pharaoh Khafre (son of Cheops). The Egyptians treated this sculpture with special respect. They revered the Sphinx as the keeper of ancient knowledge and believed that he knew something that no one knew more painfully.

Let's sum up

The Egyptians made great progress in the study of mathematics and geography. Among them were talented painters and sculptors.

Questions and tasks

• What do you know about the writing of the ancient Egyptians? What and how did they write in Ancient Egypt?
• Tell us about the scientific knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.
• Who attended Egyptian schools? What and how were they taught?
• Compare the Egyptian calendar with the one we use now. What do they have in common? What is the difference?