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Slang and jargon in modern English advertising text
Introduction
Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations for the study of slang and jargon in advertising text
.1 Slang in modern English and its features
.1.1 Basic approaches to the definition of "slang"
.1.2 The main ways of forming slang in modern English
.2 Jargon in modern English and its features
.2.1 Basic approaches to the definition of jargon
.3 Distinguish between "slang" and "jargon"
.4 Concepts of advertising text and its main features
.4.1 Essence of advertising and advertising text
.4.2 Linguistic and stylistic features of advertising texts
.5 Functioning of slang and jargon in advertising text
Chapter 2
.1 Methodology for the selection and analysis of research material
.2 Semantic, word-building and functional features of slangisms and jargons in modern English-language advertising
.2.1 Semantic functions of slang and jargon within an English-language advertising message
.2.2 Derivational characteristics of slangisms and jargons in English advertising text messages
.2.3 Main functions and pragmatic orientation of slang and jargon in English advertising
Chapter 3
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Every year there is a rapid development in the field of advertising and marketing, which contributes not only to increasing brand awareness and sales, but also to the development of the language itself, which, as a result of these processes, is going through a new stage of its evolution. Any language is subject to this, especially English, which is the most common and popular among the entire population of our planet. Such development and distribution of advertising has a significant impact on the lexical composition of the language, introducing new concepts and expressions into it, in particular, slang and jargon, which also contributes to their penetration into the everyday communication of people using it in certain situations. In this regard, domestic and foreign researchers are trying to study the language of advertising in order to identify its linguistic features, in particular the properties of slang and jargon used by advertisers for certain purposes. That is why the study of the features of slang and jargon in modern English-language advertising texts is relevant and requires a deeper theoretical and practical understanding.
Relevance this study is due to:
Increased attention to the linguistic features of advertising;
The lack of a sufficient number of works reflecting the study of the semantic, word-formation and functional features of modern English-language advertising texts;
The need for a deeper study of the pragmatics of advertising messages, in particular, the slang and jargon used in them;
Target of this work - to study the features of slang and jargon in modern English-language advertising texts and consider the possibility of using the results obtained in English lessons at school. The following research results follow from this goal. tasks:
1) consider the concepts of "slang" and "jargon" in modern English and their features;
2) identify the main ways of forming slang in modern English;
3) to argue the distinction between the concepts of "slang" and "jargon";
) study the linguistic and stylistic features of advertising texts;
) identify the main functions of slang and jargon in the advertising text;
) analyze the semantic, word-formation and functional features of slang and jargon in modern English advertising;
) consider the possibility of using the results obtained in English lessons at school;
9) develop a system of exercises using the results obtained in English lessons at school.
object of this study are slang and jargon.
Subject In this paper, we analyze the features of slang and jargon in modern English-language advertising texts and study the possibility of using the results obtained in English lessons at school. slang advertising text
The material of this study were English-language advertising messages containing slang and jargon taken from English-language newspapers, magazines and promotional videos.
Methodological and theoretical basis works are the works of such domestic and foreign researchers as G.B. Antrushina, I.V. Arnold, N.D. Arutyunova, O.S. Akhmanova, V.M. Leichik, A.I. Smirnitsky, V.N. Yartseva, G. Hughes, E. Partridge and others.
Methodology thesis work includes the principles of dialectics, i.e. the whole is seen as consisting of components in their constant unity and contradiction. Both general scientific and special methods were used in the work. General scientific methods include analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. Special methods were also used: descriptive and linguistic analyses.
Theoretical significance The work is determined by the fact that it systematizes points of view on the problem of slang and jargon and the classification of these units in the works of various researchers.
Practical value The work consists in the fact that the materials and results of the study can be used in courses on the practice of speech, stylistics and lexicology of the English language.
Hypothesis of this study is that the main goal of slangisms and jargons is the creation of expressive and stimulating advertising texts, and the influence and pragmatic impact of the studied units increases with their use as part of certain stylistic means (metaphors, epithets, etc.)
The thesis consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.
In the introduction, the goals and objectives of this study are formulated, the relevance, object and subject of the study are named, the base of empirical material is described, the theoretical value and practical significance of the work are determined.
As part of first chapter"Theoretical foundations for the study of slang and jargon in advertising text" the concepts of "slang" and "jargon" in modern English and their features are considered, the main ways of forming slang in modern English are identified and the distinction between these concepts is argued. The essence of advertising and advertising text is also considered, the linguistic and stylistic features of advertising texts are described, and the main functions of slang and jargon in advertising text are identified.
In second chapter"Study of the features of slang and jargon in modern English advertising texts" describes the methodology for selecting and analyzing research material and analyzes the semantic, derivational and functional features of slang and jargon in modern English advertising.
Third chapter"Methods of using slang and jargon advertising texts in foreign language lessons at school" the possibility of using the results obtained in English lessons at school is considered and a system of exercises is developed with their use in English lessons at school.
V imprisonment the main results of the work are summarized and prospects for further research are outlined.
Bibliography includes 61 sources of used reference literature on the topic.
Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations for the study of slang and jargon in advertising text
.1 Slang in modern English and its features
.1.1 Basic approaches to the definition of "slang"
To date, in the linguistic literature there is no unity in the interpretation of the term "slang". The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary interprets this concept as similar to jargon, and also as a set of jargons that make up a layer of colloquial vocabulary that reflects a rudely familiar, sometimes humorous attitude to the subject of speech.
In the dictionary of linguistic terms, slang is considered as "words that are often defined as a violation of the norms of the standard language. These are very expressive, ironic words that serve to refer to objects that are spoken about in everyday life" .
At present, two opposing points of view regarding slang can be traced in linguistic works. On the one hand, some scientists and linguists (K.I. Chukovsky, A.I. Smirnitsky, I.V. Arnold, Stuart B. Flexner, etc.) are of the opinion that slang unites all non-literary vocabulary (except for obscene language), then there are vulgarisms, jargon and even professionalism. Such words, as a rule, are doomed to a rapid death and should be avoided. According to K.I. Chukovsky, "unlike the original words of the language, slang words - almost all - go into circulation every year. They are short-lived and fragile." In his research, A.I. Smirnitsky refers to slang as a colloquial or familiar style of speech in a certain special area.
I.V. Arnold gives the following definition: "Slang is called rude or comic, purely colloquial words and expressions that claim to be novelty and originality."
On the other hand, according to a number of researchers (K. Ebl, S.E. Doblanovich and others), slang is considered a sign of the life and development of the language. According to K. Eble, "slang is a constantly changing composition of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or accentuate social belonging to a particular group" . S.E. Doblanovich argues that "slang is a sign of life and a gradual, consistent development of a language, a sign of a constant change in its structure, mainly lexical" .
Consequently, the composition of slang is heterogeneous, on the one hand, slang contains words that are unacceptable for the speech of cultured people, on the other hand, slang is used in the conversation of educated people, especially slang is popular among the younger generation.
One of the well-known slang specialists is E. Partridge, according to whom slang is very fragile, unstable, not codified in any way, and often completely random and random collections of lexemes that exist in the colloquial sphere, which reflect the public consciousness of people involved in a certain social or professional field of activity.
Thus, the analysis of approaches to the definition of the concept of "slang" in the scientific literature makes it possible to develop a working definition of this concept used in this study. In the framework of this study, slang is understood as a set of special emotionally colored words that are not accepted in literary speech.
It is impossible not to note the reasons for the use of slang in speech. So, in his work "Slang Today and Yesterday" E. Partridge identifies the following reasons for using slang:
1. for entertainment;
2. to show a sense of humor;
To emphasize your individuality;
To make speech more vivid;
For surprise;
To enrich your vocabulary;
To create a friendly atmosphere;
To demonstrate belonging to any social group;
To be accepted as "one's own" in the company;
To be specific;
To underestimate or exaggerate something;
To avoid the use of clichés and verbosity.
In general, slang develops and changes extremely quickly, so it disappears as easily as it is formed. As a rule, slang is used to simplify oral speech and its understanding.
Slang has been repeatedly noted by scientists as the language of the younger generation. This makes it possible to argue that entering adolescence involves the active use of slang for one reason or another, including the following:
1. the need for self-expression;
2. the desire not to look old-fashioned;
The desire to stand out.
1.1.2 The main ways of forming slang in modern English
There are many different ways of forming slang words and expressions, which are discussed in this chapter.
Reduplication - doubling the stem of a word. For instance: pooh-pooh(don't take it seriously) fifty-fifty(equally), tip-top(excellent). As emphasized by T.M. Belyaev, reduplicates are created and function in colloquial speech "due to their expressiveness, which arises as a result of the interaction of formal, meaningful, and sound (more precisely, phonosemantic) features" .
Abbreviation of words, which has several varieties:
Word truncation: biz - business, cause - because;
Abbreviation: UTC - Universal Time Coordinated, LOL - laughing out loud, B.F. - best friend;
Transfer of meaning, which is the most common in the formation of slang units: bread colloquially used in the meaning of "money", and the concepts grass, herbs and weed stands for marijuana.
Composition plays an important role in the formation of slang and is usually based on the use of two or more words: hothead- quick-tempered scum bag- scoundrel.
Metaphorical and metonymic transfer also occurs in the process of slang formation. According to G.B. Antrushina, the following types of name transfer are distinguished:
1. transfer based on similarity (language metaphor): bucket(bucket) is used to playfully nominate a car or boat;
2. transfer based on adjacency (linguistic metonymy): blue caps used in the sense of "blue caps" for a playful name for the Royal Military Police.
The boundaries of slang are very blurred, so the same words in different dictionaries can have different meanings and be differentiated in different ways. The blurring of the scope of this concept is also predetermined by linguistic and social variability in chronological terms. The rapid social development inevitably leads to changes in the attitude of society towards slang and its carriers, the rejection of old and the adoption of new value orientations and norms, etc. These processes are intensified under the conditions of a continuous information boom, approaching the point of singularity in scientific and technological progress, and anthropocentrization of the scientific paradigm, which is necessarily reflected in the language in general and in slang in particular.
1.2 Jargon in modern English and its features
.2.1 Basic approaches to the definition of jargon
A related concept to slang is the concept of jargon. Jargon - (from the French word jargon) is a kind of language that differs greatly from generally accepted norms in its lexical composition, phraseology, etc. The main and essential feature of jargon is that it is used only in groups united by a common interest. Jargon is a conventional language that is understandable only in a certain environment.
According to A.N. Bulyko, jargon - the speech of any social group, saturated with words and expressions peculiar only to this group and incomprehensible to other people (for example, acting jargon, sea jargon).
Jargons are words used by certain social groups and carrying a secret meaning for everyone else. Jargon pervades all strata of society. They can be found in movies, literature and even advertising.
According to O.V. Starkov, jargons are divided into:
1. class-interlayer;
2. production;
Youth;
Grouping people according to interests and hobbies.
The term "jargon" itself has a negative connotation and, as a rule, people associate with hostile social groups: prison jargon, jargon of drug addicts, etc. Slang, unlike jargon, is more neutral and does not have a negative connotation.
There are a number of reasons for using jargon:
1. the desire to communicate in a circle of strangers and not be understood;
2. speech expressiveness;
Desire to hide secrets.
In this regard, many linguists (V.A. Khomyakov and others) distinguish
"function of secret communication" of jargon, especially when it comes to criminal jargon.
The term "jargon", like "slang", has a huge range of meanings, which largely allows us to highlight their distinctive and related features. That is why it is necessary to consider in more detail the correlation of these concepts in the scientific literature.
1.3 Distinction between the concepts of "slang" and "jargon"
Slang is sometimes compared and confused with jargon, because it is also a variant of colloquial speech. Basically, slang differs from jargon in its increased emotionality.
According to R. Spears, the concept of slang has gone through a long period of its development (from the middle of the 18th century) from a simple name of a criminal dialect / jargon to a generalized concept used to denote jargon, colloquialisms, dialectisms and vulgarisms, that is, "any non-standard or unpleasant words or phrases.
Researchers J. Aito and J. Simpson identify the following stages in the development of the semantics of this concept:
1. special vocabulary that is used by any group of marginal people (mid-18th century);
2. special vocabulary or phraseology of a certain type of occupation or profession (second half of the 18th century);
Predominantly colloquial substandard language, consisting of new and already known words that are used in a specific sense (beginning of the 19th century).
In many dictionaries, slang is classified as jargon, as a result of which it is differentiated, and English and American lexicologies begin to note military, sports, theatrical, student, parliamentary and religious slang in speech, as well as neologisms, which are also often referred to as slang. At the same time, due to the dynamism of the language, many slang words and expressions in a few years can become part of the general colloquial or literary vocabulary.
English-language linguistics uses the term "slang" to refer to an uncodified language. So, in English-language dictionary entries there are at least two main interpretations of the word "slang":
1. special speech of subgroups or subcultures of society;
2. vocabulary of wide use for informal communication. Slang is divided into general and special. General slang or just slang are words and phrases used within several subcultures and are widespread and understandable to all social strata of the population, which does not cause difficulty in interpreting and understanding the semantic content of the corresponding lexical units. This type of slang has a pronounced emotional and evaluative character with the dominance of the expressive function over the nominative one. General slang sometimes has phonetic, morphological and syntactic features, but, according to A.K. Babina, V.G. Vilyuman and I.R. Halperin, differs genetically and functionally from special slang (slang, jargon), as it is outside the literary language.
General slang has a number of distinctive features:
1. distributed in almost all strata of society;
2. stable over a long period of time;
With a pronounced emotional character [Vilyuman: 48-50].
Special slang includes words or phrases that occur within individual subcultures, as well as words of one or another professional or class jargon. Despite the fact that jargon is often included in slang, it is opposed to general slang as a special one.
Many linguists still do not agree on whether to include all professionalism, coarse vocabulary, thieves' jargon, expressive colloquial phrases and dialectisms as slang. Others believe that slang is opposed to the literary vocabulary and does not include dialectisms, professionalism and jargon. Thus, jargon words are separated into a separate group and denoted by the term jargon
According to L.I. Antrushina, I.V. Arnold, S.A. Kuznetsova, the concepts of jargon and slang should not be considered as two different phenomena in the language, relating them to the speech of a socially and professionally conditioned group, as well as to an element of speech that does not coincide with the norm of the literary language. This is due to the fact that slang is characterized by the presence of all types of connotations: respectively, evaluative).
Therefore, slang is opposed to the literary norm.
According to the definition of V.N. Yartseva, slang is a collection of jargon used in social groups.
I.R. Galperin distinguishes slang from jargon in that slangisms are neologisms that have an emotional coloring and originate in colloquial speech and eventually pass into the official spoken language. Jargon, on the other hand, can only be imposed on the literary language by widespread use, for example, in the media.
According to I.R. Galperin, jargon is social, not local, and is a code system with the corresponding dictionary meaning. Slang, unlike jargon, does not need to be interpreted, since it does not refer to a secret code. It is easily understood by those people who speak this code language, but perceive the use of these words as something not quite ordinary or as a "perversion of normal language". Jargon can move from one social group to another and eventually even become the norm of the literary language. Highlighting special and commonly used jargons (they belong to all social groups), the researcher notes that jargon, in turn, can become slang, since the first one passes from a certain circle to the common one, and therefore changes its "mysteriousness and encryption". Jargons are also distinguished by the fact that they have their own strict place in society, therefore they are easily classified according to this criterion.
The penetration of slang into our language is associated with the study of English-speaking cultures. At first, only foreign-language realities were called slang, but later the scope of use expanded. However, if there is still no generally accepted point of view when discussing the meaning of the concept of "slang", then the term "jargon" has a fairly clear interpretation. Jargon is interpreted as a kind of language, a social dialect that differs from the national language by a special lexical composition of phraseology. An essential feature of jargon is that it is used by certain social, professional, or other interest groups.
Researchers have repeatedly made attempts to distinguish between these concepts. Scientists J. Greenog and G. Kittridge define slang as existing in the colloquial sphere as a rather fragile, unstable, not codified in any way, and often completely disordered and random collection of lexemes that reflect the public consciousness of people who belong to a certain social or professional environment. Slang is considered as a conscious, deliberate use of elements of a general literary dictionary in colloquial speech for purely stylistic purposes: to create the effect of novelty, unusualness, difference from recognized samples, to convey a certain mood of the speaker, to give the statement specificity, playfulness, expressiveness, accuracy, conciseness, figurativeness , as well as in order to avoid clichés, which is achieved, according to the researchers, through the use of such stylistic means as metaphor and metonymy.
According to T.E. Zakharchenko, the term "slang" is often understood as the same as the term "jargon", pointing to the reasons why these concepts are used as synonyms. One of these reasons is the constant use of different terms in national linguistic schools to refer to the same phenomenon.
The term "jargon" is characterized by the presence of the function of concealment, the desire of carriers to separate from society, including with the help of language. However, the terms "slang" and "jargon" function as synonyms in the meaning of "language characteristic of a particular group of people", and therefore these concepts are often confused. However, there are different reasons for their occurrence, and therefore different functions. Speaking of slang, one should note the speaker's desire to express himself most colorfully and figuratively in order to comply with fashion and modern trends, while jargon is used for the purpose of conspiracy, when the speaker seeks to communicate among other people and not be understood by others. Thus, jargon acts as a codified language, i.e. a code owned by a limited number of people who strictly guard it. In turn, slang is an uncodified language that is freely used by a wide range of people in various situations.
Thus, there are many points of view regarding the identity and difference between the concepts of "slang" and "jargon". However, most researchers of this issue argue that these terms have more in common than differences. Therefore, due to its extreme flexibility and mobility, slang is constantly changing, new words appear, and existing vocabulary can acquire new meanings, thereby contributing to the further development of the language.
1.4 Concepts of advertising text and its main features
The language of advertising since its inception has been the object of study of linguistics. But, despite the huge amount of linguistic research, there is no consensus among scientists as to from what positions to analyze advertising - the functional style of the language or the communicative style of speech. The answer to this question will not be unambiguous, because some scientists consider advertising a functional style (N.N. Kokhtev, V.V. Tulupov), while others consider it a discourse (V.M. Leichik).
Representatives of the first point of view consider advertising based on what place it occupies in modern society. This is a traditional functional and stylistic approach, following which scientists came to the conclusion that in advertising texts the choice of language / speech units and their construction are based on the same principles as in journalistic texts found in the field of mass communication. If we adhere to this approach, then it is necessary to single out the advertising style as a kind of Russian literary language.
The right to such a statement is given both by extralinguistic factors (functional styles are distinguished on the basis of the spheres of human activity) and linguistic ones, namely the leading constructive principle, which turns out to be similar to the constructive principle of journalistic style, where the choice of linguistic means and their organization proceed from the "alternation of expression and standard".
It is the specific orientation of the internal style norm that makes it possible to distinguish between two large functional varieties of the modern language - journalistic and advertising styles. And although the question of the linguistic status of advertising has not yet been finally resolved, we are inclined to recognize the advertising style as an independent variety. The most important feature of both styles - appraisal - not so much brings together, but allows you to distinguish between advertising and journalism. If the appraisal of the journalistic style is social, then the appraisal of the advertising style is utilitarian.
This approach to advertising analysis, called the language approach, has its advantages. It cannot be denied that he contributes to the development of functional stylistics, which proceeds along with the development of the functional system of the literary language. But this approach has limitations, otherwise it has its limits, since it is, first of all, enumerative, inventory, which is not able to take into account either the whole variety of advertising activities, or the multi-stage process of creating advertising works. Another approach to the analysis of advertising - speech, otherwise called communicative, considers advertising as a discourse.
With this approach, the analysis includes not only style norms, but also communicative ones; not only language units corresponding to a certain level of language, but also speech communication strategies, in the construction of which social, gender, age and other characteristics of communicants are taken into account.
The proof that advertising is a process is the implementation of advertising campaigns consisting of several stages. In the process of an advertising campaign, the pragmatic task of promoting the merits of the advertised product is realized in various forms - from a simple short announcement to detailed stories of people who have become its consumers.
The features of advertising works also testify in favor of the discourse. In communicative stylistics, in contrast to functional, it is more legitimate to divide texts not into genres that have their own boundaries, but into types of texts. According to the researchers of mass communication, in this case, the "I" of the speaker comes to the fore, and the author realizes his intention not within the narrow boundaries of the genre, but in the communicative space of speech, breaking down all restraining genre partitions.
The inconsistency of some advertising messages with the concept of text due to the lack of coherence and completeness leads to an appeal to a term that is applicable to any advertising messages - incomplete in semantic terms or diffuse in structural terms as a result of switching from one type of text to another. Given the specific features of advertising messages, some scientists, in order to comply with the scientific tradition of text linguistics, suggest using the term "advertising works".
Advertising discourse related to the sphere of mass communication, following this logic, is one of the types of media discourse. It is characterized by the presence of the target audience, as well as specific pragmatic attitudes, which are reflected both in the content of advertising texts and in their form, where the graphic side plays an important role in the form of drawings, illustrations, colors, as well as video and sound elements.
In order to describe the specifics of advertising activities, first of all, it is necessary to give a definition of advertising. The question of what advertising is, only at first glance seems simple. In fact, there are many definitions of advertising, but among them there is no one that would become generally accepted.
A deeper and, accordingly, representative definition, in our opinion, looks like this: "Advertising is one of the forms of mass communication in which information-figurative, expressive-suggestive texts of a unidirectional and non-personal nature about goods, paid by the advertiser, are created and distributed. services, ideas that have a psychological impact on the mass and individual consciousness of consumers in order to induce them to the choice and actions necessary for the advertiser.
We will proceed from the fact that advertising is a complex activity that includes several blocks. The block refers to the elements of advertising activity, which together form the advertising discourse: the speech component plus the means used in this complex process. Each of the blocks is aimed at performing certain advertising functions, the implementation of which contributes to the sale of the advertised material or spiritual products while achieving the maximum profit from its consumption.
It is important to note here that, despite the purely pragmatic orientation, advertising activity is considered creative, but creativity is technological in nature.
In the framework of this study, the functions of commercial advertising are considered. So, there are three main functions of advertising: informative, pragmatic and communicative. Of course, these functions are far from exhausting the tasks solved by advertising, which is called the "fifth power" or compared with religion.
As a source of ready-made speech formulas, advertising has become a "role model" due to its distinctive quality - pressure, often turning into aggressiveness. It is believed that advertising is one of the most aggressive and intrusive types of mass communication.
"This behavior is quite understandable and even due to the goals and objectives that advertising performs: it is to attract the attention of a mass audience, the need to be ahead of competitors, the desire to remind oneself. The pressure, often turning into aggressiveness, is largely due to the fact that it is precisely in the presence of With these qualities, advertising is able to overcome the inertia of consumer thinking and fulfill its purpose.
The above tasks act as derivatives of the leading function of advertising - to influence the consumer in such a way as to force him to purchase the advertised product or use the service offered. Therefore, in the structure of advertising discourse, the pragmatic block is in the first place, because. Advertising is primarily a pragmatic activity. Language in advertising is a tool that is used to influence the addressee, hence it follows that pragmatic techniques occupy a very significant place in this activity.
Among the methods of influence, a special place is occupied by the methods of speech manipulation, which are aimed at suggestion.
No less important in advertising is the communicative block, because. advertising, as already noted, is a communication process aimed at increasing the degree of impact on the consumer. This explains the dialogical nature of advertising, which appears in various forms: direct dialogue, imaginary exchange of remarks, question-answer form, or in the form of a retort, which assumes a previously held dialogue.
The third block is informational, which is also considered one of the most important and at the same time the most developed in advertising. This block includes the name of the advertised object, and most importantly - its characteristics. Terms should be considered as an obligatory component of the information block, especially since discourse is considered as a cognitive process of knowledge and cognition.
The next block is semiotic, the presence of which is explained by the fact that signs-symbols and signs-models are widely used in advertising. The use of signs-symbols is aimed at creating a positive image of the advertised product, at increasing its attractiveness, and, consequently, the effectiveness of advertising.
The linguistic block is also distinguished, which is most significant in advertising activities. This block occupies a special position because it permeates all of the above blocks of advertising discourse.
The effectiveness of advertising is largely created by extralinguistic factors. If advertising is placed in a newspaper, then systemically related indicators should be highlighted here: circulation, various methods and distribution zones, regularity of delivery. If the advertisement is placed in a magazine, then its advantage has more to do with psychological prerequisites. Psychotechnologists of effective advertising campaigns believe that magazines are the means by which readers feel most involved. Here you can try to "capture" the reader's mood with some kind of advertising move, you can highlight more information, because readers will want to leave time for reading a magazine advertisement rather than a newspaper one. Due to the narrow specialization, the audience, which is considered permanent, usually reads all journal materials with great interest. Finally, magazines are better for reading large texts.
The pragmatic orientation of the language of advertising should be stated not only from a linguistic point of view. Advertising can be called pragmatic in the general literary, non-special meaning of this concept, since, even being extremely concise, it takes into account any customer requests.
1.4.2 Linguistic and stylistic features of advertising texts
The extralinguistic situation largely determines the choice of language techniques and speech means. Advertising takes into account changes in demand as much as possible.
The linguistic and stylistic features of advertising messages are determined not only by the specifics of the advertised object, but also by the nature of the target audience, which dictates the tactics of speech behavior. Advertising can in no way be called primitive, designed for a wide range of consumers and, accordingly, adapting to the broad masses of the people. The addressee of advertising is not a simple layman, but a person with financial capabilities, who does not occupy the lowest step in the social hierarchy.
Advertising requires increased attention from linguists, since the specifics of the advertised object, along with the functional settings and the nature of the audience, determine the very peculiar linguistic and stylistic nature of advertising.
It should be noted that in addition to communicative and pragmatic features, advertising is also characterized by the use of certain linguistic means, which are reflected in the syntactic, lexical and stylistic levels of the English language.
At the syntactic level, the following features of advertising presented in the research material are noted:
1. one-part sentences: " Tempting aromas, the festive glow, all the wonderful sounds of the season and delicious yuletide treats". Advertising should not be voluminous, but highly informative, therefore, the function of such structures is quite transparent: to make sentences more concise, dynamic. Such a pragmatic calculation is one of the most effective methods of influencing the reader;
Syntax parallelism: " Often imitated, never bettered". Constructions of this kind are designed to enhance the expression in the text, and at the same time, attention is focused on what the reader has probably never done, while the potential client's fantasy is played out, and the desire increases significantly;
Negative forms: " There may be no better way to see the countryside, experience the culture, taste the food, hear the music and meet all of the wonderful characters of Kentucky than on Kentucky tours, trails and byways"The use of the negative form in the sentences is dictated by the desire of advertisers to draw the attention of readers, on the one hand, to the fact that one should not miss the excellent opportunities offered by various companies. The emphasis is on the uniqueness of the offered opportunity, which, of course, has a certain pragmatic effect on the recipient of information : no one wants to miss the chance that looks so tempting;
4. exclamatory sentences: " Maxwell House. Good to the last drop!"- speak for themselves: they certainly attract attention, make them familiarize themselves with the text and the product offered, while unobtrusively affecting the reader, encouraging him to at least go deeper into the text and, as a maximum, purchase the product immediately. Such a suggestion and appeal to feelings - a pragmatically calculated move by advertisers, and very successful;
5. imperative mood of verbs: Tomas Sabo: "Charm up your life."; Swarovski: "Live big and go for it."; wella: "express you style…". Encouragement of the addressee to action, a call to something new and unknown is an excellent course of advertising campaigns, and the use of the imperative mood of verbs as an appeal to readers performs this function naturally and enticingly;
6. Comparison: " PhongNha - Ke Bang can be compared to a huge geological museum - thanks to its complicated geological structure with different categories of stone including sandstone, quartz, schist, siliceous limestone, granite, granodiorite, diorite, applet, pegmatite, etc."- help advertising developers to conjure up colorfully described pictures in people's imagination, while, of course, the text itself is accompanied by a variety of photographs to enhance the pragmatic effect that is achieved by comparisons. Moreover, the object described in the advertising text is presented as unique, one of a kind among many others;
Bright headlines: " Christmas markets in Germany: a delight for all the senses" - this is perhaps one of the most important elements of advertising, since the headline is the first thing the reader pays attention to in the text [Andreeva: 41-49].
At the lexical level, the following features of advertising are noted:
1. introductory words help to structure the text, consistently state the capabilities of the product, highlighting the most important: " I think, therefore IBM";
2. the use of adjectives mostly in superlatives to exaggerate the qualities of the advertised product: L'oreal: "Hair looksluminous, shiny…"; Geox: " Beautiful and always at ease confident… "; Northern Clinic: " The latest development …"; Wella: " Find your nearest wella salon now."; Pantene: "… the healthiest it’ s ever been" [Koziolov].
Phonetic means of expression are also characteristic of the studied advertising texts:
1. onomatopoeia: " Schhh! You know who? - Schweppes-s-s";
The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of closely spaced stressed syllables to create a certain emotional tone corresponding to the content of the utterance is an effective means of expression: " Award-winning walks in the Saarland";
Repetition of stressed vowels within a line or phrase: " Experience a world beyond your imagination - like a fairytale brought to life"is a fairly effective and efficient means of transmitting information, a means of influencing the process of perceiving a speech message.
Among the stylistic means of creating expressiveness in advertising texts, there are the following:
1. use of alliteration: " Maybe she's born with it. Maybe it's Maybelline";
2. use of pleonasm: " There is one thing, however, that all visitors to Bayreuth have come to expect: the very best";
Use of metaphor: " Mentos - Fresh Decision";
Using repeats: " Love is … - sweet taste of love";
Slang usage: " PSP (Sony Playstation Portable) - "PSP. Hells Yeah"";
Jargon usage: " Never pay for a covered repair again".It should be noted that among the indicated linguistic features of the studied advertising texts, special attention should be paid to the use and functioning of the last two linguistic phenomena.
1.5 Functioning of slang and jargon in advertising text
Advertising affects different people. However, one of the categories most sensitive to the influence of advertising is young people who are in the process of active socialization. Also, advertising has an impact on children and adolescents, who are more willing to respond to
"mundane colloquial style as opposed to lofty and formal". That is why the number of promotional products addressed to young consumers is increasing. Consequently, the promotion of such products requires specific means of influence, including linguistic ones. In accordance with this, advertisers, in order to overcome the psychological barrier between advertising and the audience, are trying to get closer to young people, resorting to the use of non-literary language units, elements of slang and jargon, or to creating new words and structures in their likeness.
The spheres and laws of the functioning of slang and jargon in modern English are increasingly becoming the object of scientific research. That is why it is necessary to consider the features of the functioning of slang and jargon in the advertising text.
Due to its expressiveness, slang is an effective tool used in various forms of art and mass communication - in particular advertising - to increase the impact on the audience. Quite often, slang is used in advertising slogans. For the most part, this applies to advertising products targeted at a youth audience: strong and low-alcohol drinks, chocolate bars, etc. One of the conceptual requirements for the slogan is to take into account the characteristics of the target audience, the specifics of its language, and, therefore, "slogans aimed at a youth audience will be the most effective and expressive" if elements of youth slang are used in them. Thus, advertisers exploit the linguistic features of slang and jargon in order to enhance the sale of a product or service.
The original is the slang in the Panasonic slogan:
"This is a real screamer". This company has a long history, and it has already established itself as a reputable company. Everyone knows that Panasonic produces high-quality equipment and there is no need to remind about it. It is much more effective to create advertising to maintain the brand image, which is what the company's advertisers did. Slangism" a real screamer" is chosen appropriately, since a certain value is assigned to it with a high level of expression of positive emotions.
The slang term " like a nut", which is used in the sense of "like an eccentric, crazy, fool", etc. With this expression, advertisers want to show that with the products of Peter Paul Almond Joy & Peter Paul Mounds, the reader will feel better and gain self-confidence, what is essential in human life: Sometimes you feel like a nut, sometimes you don't".
Jargon is also found in advertising texts. One notable example is " Mystery Shopper Wanted", with the help of which the authors of the advertising text seek to find a specially trained person who performs an anonymous assessment of the quality of customer service, the work of staff, their honesty, verification of compliance with merchandising standards, the quality of products and services.
Therefore, having considered some of the examples of the use of common slang and jargon in advertising, we can conclude that the use of these linguistic means must meet the basic requirements of advertising. At the same time, their use in advertising texts affects the language processes, contributing to the spread of these concepts, their convergence with the normative language. Penetrating into advertising, slangisms and jargons lose their ability to separate a certain group of people, the effect of alienation is lost. The advertising text for them is a means of transition to the codified language. The media is a kind of legislator of the literary language, therefore slang and jargon in advertising can be perceived as a neologism, which leads to their spread in a wide variety of circles.
Chapter 1 Conclusions
In the course of the study, the theoretical research works of domestic and foreign linguists on the topic of work were studied, the concepts of "slang" and "jargon" in linguistics, in particular in the English-language advertising text, and their use in the advertising text field were considered.
Consideration of the concept of "slang" in the scientific literature made it possible to single out two opposite approaches to its understanding due to the lack of an unambiguous definition of this term. Based on the analyzed materials, a working definition was developed: slang is considered as a linguistic term denoting a set of special emotionally colored words that are not accepted in literary speech. Jargon, on the other hand, is seen as words used by certain social groups and carrying a secret meaning for everyone else. Like slangisms, jargon gradually penetrates into all spheres of human life for one reason or another.
There is still a question about the difference between the concepts of "slang" and "jargon". First of all, it should be noted the bright expressiveness of slangisms, which contributes to the coloring of the speaker's speech. Jargonisms, on the other hand, are characterized by a hidden meaning, difficult to decode by people who are not initiated into certain areas. That is why jargon, as a rule, is used in narrowly targeted advertising messages targeted at a specific target audience.
In advertising texts, slang and jargon are widespread language phenomena that enable advertisers to influence the audience in order to encourage it to certain pre-planned actions. At the same time, the main emphasis is placed on the associative thinking of the recipient and his inner desires, to which advertisers turn. Consequently, the advertising text and its stylistic content (slangisms and jargon) contribute to the creation of a pragmatic and communicative message aimed at a hidden impact on the target audience by appealing to its desires and preferences.
Chapter 2
.1 Methodology for the selection and analysis of research material
The practical part of this study is devoted to the study of semantic, derivational and functional features of slang and jargon in modern English advertising text in order to determine their pragmatic and communicative potential in each individual case. This study is based on the analysis of 109 advertising texts submitted by various world famous companies (Appendix). The studied material is selected from various Internet resources, which contain advertisements from newspapers and magazines.
The main criteria for selecting the material under study are as follows:
Communicative and pragmatic orientation of English advertising texts;
The presence of slang and jargon in English advertising texts.
To check the content of each identified slangism and jargon in the studied English-language advertising texts, the following dictionaries were used:
1. Dictionary of English slang and colloquialisms of the UK;
2. Dictionary of Slang in North America, Great Britain and Australia. Dictionary of English slang. Features of the use of slang in North America, Great Britain and Australia;
Green's Dictionary of Slang;
The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang;
The Oxford Dictionary of English;
Urban Dictionary.
Within the framework of this study, a quantitative analysis of the use of slang and jargon in English advertising texts was carried out, which made it possible to identify these linguistic phenomena in the material under study.
The conducted study of the use of slang and jargon in English advertising texts also allows us to summarize the results obtained in the form of a diagram (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Use of slang and jargon in English advertising texts
Thus, the study of the use of slang and jargon shows that the latter are less common (5%) due to the specifics and scope of their use. Slang, on the other hand, is widespread among a larger number of people and is included in everyday language, which is largely predictable, given its wide meaning and the possibility of using it in various fields of human activity.
2.2 Semantic, word-formation and functional features of slangisms and jargons in modern English-language advertising
.2.1 Semantic functions of slang and jargon within an English-language advertising message
Consideration of the features of English slang and jargon should also be carried out in the context of their semantics and pragmatics, given the significant indirect influence of the content of these phenomena in the text field. Therefore, it is necessary to study the semantic and pragmatic features of slang and jargon in modern English advertising texts.
From the point of view of semantics, it should be noted that the used slangisms and jargons have not only a denotative, but also a connotative meaning, which is revealed in each of the analyzed advertising texts. That is why, first of all, it is necessary to consider those that are used in a direct and figurative sense. In general, within the framework of this study, about 109 English-language advertising messages containing the studied linguistic phenomena were analyzed.
Given the specifics and focus of advertising, it is not surprising that in most cases slang and jargon in modern English advertising texts are used in a figurative sense, usually based on metaphorical transfer, which is one of the brightest expressive and influencing means in the field of marketing. .
The analysis of the use of slang and jargon in the direct and figurative meaning shows that 82% of cases of their use are based on the figurative meaning of the lexemes used, while 18% of cases demonstrate the direct meaning of these language units (Fig. 2).
Vivid examples of the use of slang and jargon in modern English advertising texts in the literal sense are the following cases of their use for marketing purposes:
- Eatin' good in the neighborhood eatin' in the meaning "to take into the mouth and swallow (food, etc.), esp. after biting and chewing";
- beanz meanz heinz that uses slang meanz, formed from the lexeme means, meaning "to intend to convey or express";
- Where friendship is the largest jackpot! that uses jargon jackpot meaning "any large prize, kitty, or accumulated stake that may be won in gambling, such as a pool in poker that accumulates until the betting is opened with a pair of jacks or higher";
- WotalotIgot! that uses slang WotalotIgot in the meaning of "What a lot I got";
- Fly like a CEO, pay like a temp that uses slang temp, which is an abbreviated form of an adjective temporary, meaning "a person who is employed by an agency that sends them to work in different offices for short periods of time, for example to replace someone who is ill or on holiday".
The use of slang and jargon in a figurative sense, in particular based on metaphorical transfer, is presented in the following English advertising texts:
- Helping Australia get back on its feetget back on feet in the meaning "to recover, to succeed in something that previously was impossible";
- Our models can beat up their models that uses slang beat up in the meaning "to defeat (an opponent); prevail";
- I go cuckoo for Cocoa Puffs! that uses slang go cuckoo in the meaning of "to be crazy about something";
- Gros Jos that uses slang Gros Jos in the meaning of "a women with huge breasts";
- Gros Mac that uses slang Gros Mac meaning "a big pimp".
The studied material shows that in modern advertising texts, slang and jargon, as a rule, can be divided thematically:
1. gaming topics, such as bets and casinos: Where friendship is the largest jackpot!;
2. fashion industry: Let Prudential be your rock;
Modern technologies: Hello Tosh, gotta Toshiba?;
Health: Benecol. Keep cholesterol at bay;
Air Freight: Is this any way to run an airline? - You bet it is!;
Sphere of nutrition: Fast foodies know the deal;
Automotive: Built Ford to tough!
Some of the studied slangisms refer to set phrases used in various fields, including advertising. Among them are such as top notch in the meaning of "of the highest quality; excellent", on a roll- "experiencing a prolonged spell of success or good luck", etc. The results of the study show that jargon, presented in the form of stable phrases, was not found.
Thus, the study shows that the semantics of advertising messages largely depends on the semantic features of the language units that they use, especially slang and jargon, which have a high degree of expressiveness. The results of the study show that slang and jargon are used in modern English-language advertising, both literally and figuratively, depending on the goals pursued by advertisers. The main function of slang and jargon in the study sample is the creation of expressive and stimulating advertising texts aimed at attracting the attention of consumers. This is especially true for those slangs and jargons that are used in a figurative sense based on a metaphorical transfer.
2.2.2 Derivational characteristics of slangisms and jargons in English advertising text messages
Before proceeding to the analysis of the pragmatic functions of slang and jargon, which are found in modern English-language advertising and are used for a specific communicative and influencing purpose, it is necessary to pay attention to the word-formation aspect of these language units identified in the material under study in order to trace the features and main trends of their formation in modern English, in particular its various variants, given the fact that part of the sample is characterized by the presence of American slang, which is widespread throughout the world.
Within the framework of this study, an analysis is made of the word-formation features of slangisms and jargons that are found in modern English-language advertising texts to achieve the communicative and influencing goal conceived by advertisers.
1. Changing the meaning of the primary lexical unit.
One of the most common ways to form new lexical units is to change the meaning of the primary lexical unit (35%). In most cases, the change in value is caused by the transfer of the value of the name, namely:
Metaphor, since metaphor is one of the main means of slang word formation. It is with its help that the brightest and most used words are formed. The following examples were found in the studied material: to go cuckoo- "to be crazy about something" (ex.: I go cuckoo for Cocoa Puffs!); beat up- "to defeat (an opponent); prevail" (ex.: Our models can beat up their models.);
Metonymy: Gros Jos- "women with huge breasts" (ex.: Gros Jos); Gros Mac- "a big pimp" (ex.: Gros Mac).
One of the characteristic means of word formation, primarily for slang, is a pun substitution: cookability- "stuff that is suitable for cooking anywhere" (ex: Cookability ... that's the beauty of gas.).
2. Conversion- this is the formation of a new basis from an already existing (inferential) basis by a simple rethinking of the latter without any change in its form. In total, 11% of cases of using conversion for word-formation purposes in the analyzed English-language advertising messages were identified. An example would be the following:
Noun lift- good mood (ex.: Give your afternoon a lift.), which was formed by conversion from the verb to lift- "get high";
Noun go- "an attempt or try" (eg: The Actimel challenge.Give it a go.), which was formed by conversion from the verb to go- "to move or proceed, esp. to or from a point or in a certain direction";
The noun kick is "a stimulating or exciting quality or effect" (ex: Caution: ketchup has kick.), which was formed by conversion from the verb to kick- "to hit with the foot or feet".
3. Composition. In the field of composition, the most typical feature of English and American slang and jargon is the transformation of a number of words into one whole. So, WotalotIgot!- "what a lot I got!" (ex.: smarties. WotalotIgot!) It should be noted that this method of forming slang is quite popular and effective (8%), since in print advertising it allows you to focus the attention of the target audience on a certain aspect of the statement, and also saves text space, which is usually limited when it comes to printing advertising messages in the media or on certain popular Internet sites.
4. Morphological word formation. In the studied material, the morphological formation of slang and jargon is widely found (46%). The most productive and frequent is the affixal type of word formation. In the formation of slangisms and jargon in the research material, there are often cases of the affixal type of word formation.
The following advertising messages can be cited as an example of the affixal type of formation of slangisms and jargon in modern English advertising text:
- physical- "to go through the process of fizziness" (ex.: Every bubble's passed its fizzical.);
- fast foodie-"a person who likes to eat fast food" (ex: Fast foodies know the deal.);
- trashed-"under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol" (eg: Home of the trashed wing.).
In American slang and jargon, the most common suffix is er. In the middle of the XX century. this suffix began to be actively used not only in everyday life, but also became widespread in other areas, in particular in advertising. In the material under study, there are also slang terms and jargons with this suffix, namely:
- quencher- "alcohol" (eg: The Thirst Quencher.);
- banger-" a sausage" (ex.: Bangers with flair.);
A large group is represented by verbs that are used in persistent communication with postpositives. down, off, out, up, around. The most productive is out and up: beat up- "to defeat (an opponent); prevail" (ex.: Our models can beat up their models.); cough off- "to get away immediately" (ex.: Tell your cough to cough off!).
The study showed that in slang there is a tendency to simplify, to save language efforts, which is reflected in the use of short words and the reduction of lexical units. Words that can be abbreviated make up 46% of the cases of use in the studied material:
- lipsmackin", thirstquenchin", acetastin", motivatin", goodbuzzin", cooltalkin", highwalkin", fastlivin", evergivin", coolfizzin"- "lipsmacking, thirstquenching, acetasting, motivating, goodbuzzing, cooltalking, highwalking, fastliving, evergiving, coolfizzing" (ex: Lipsmackin", thirstquenchin", acetastin", motivatin", goodbuzzin", cooltalkin", highwalkin", fastlivin", evergivin", coolfizzin" Pepsi.);
- gotta- "(have) got a, (have) got to" (ex: Hello Tosh, gotta Toshiba?);
- c'mon- "come on" (ex.: C'mon Colman's light my fire.);
- betcha- "bet you" (ex.: Betcha can't eat just one.);
- gottahava- "got to have a" (ex: Gottahava Wawa. ).
A special place among the slangisms found in the studied materials is occupied by a fairly large group of slangisms, which is represented by exclamations and interjections. They give expressive coloring to the statement and serve for the direct expression of feelings and will. As a rule, they are short exclamations and express different degrees:
1. Pleasures: yum- "used to express pleasure at eating, or at the prospect of eating, a particular food" (eg: Wendy's, Wendy's, yum!);
Surprise and delight: wow- "expressing astonishment or admiration" (eg: Keep your hair color Wow.); wah- used typically to express admiration (ex: Wah! So fresh for less!);
3. Approvals: yeah- "non-standard spelling of yes, representing informal pronunciation" (eg: Honey Comb's big! Yeah, yeah, yeah! It's not small...no, no, no!);
Surprise: b "gosh- "by gosh" (ex.: Oshkosh, b "gosh. ).
Borrowings play a significant role in the formation of slang and jargon. The slang used in the material under study includes vocabulary borrowed from other spheres and, in turn, can serve as a source of borrowings for social dialects. The conversational style of certain social groups is especially popular among the target audience of different ages and serves as a behavioral guide for them. So, a lot of slang terms were taken from the lexicon of programmers, the media, gangsters, prostitutes, drug addicts, etc. For example, in the material under study, the following slang terms were found, borrowed from different areas:
- bovver- "hooliganism or violent disorder, especially as caused by gangs of skinheads";
- snooze paper- "something having nothing to do with a quality newspaper";
- InSync- "the coordination of events to operate a system in unison".
In general, the list of such borrowed slangs and jargons can be continued, since they are all widely used in the advertising field, however, they can be applied in different areas due to their dynamism and mobility.
Within the framework of this study, a quantitative analysis of the word-formation features of slangisms and jargon in English-language advertising texts was carried out, which made it possible to highlight the specifics of word formation in the material under study (Fig. 3).
Fig.3. Word-formation features of slangisms and jargonisms
Thus, the study shows that the slangisms and jargons found in modern English advertising texts have a number of word-formation features that reflect the development trends not only of British English, but also of its variants, in particular American. Among the main ways of forming slangisms and jargons, one should note the change in the meaning of the primary lexical unit, conversion, word composition and morphological formation.
2.2.3 Main functions and pragmatic orientation of slang and jargon in English advertising
Today, society is in the process of continuous development and changes that affect absolutely all spheres of human activity. Advertising as an integral attribute of any activity also changes in accordance with the development of society. From a means of creating pressure on the consumer, advertising texts are gradually turning into a means of marketing communication, effectively playing the role of a language of communication between the manufacturer and the consumer.
5. Influence function, which can be defined as a combination of emotive, aesthetic and influencing functions;
6. informative function, which consists in reporting the necessary data about the advertised object.
The influence function is clearly demonstrated by the following example, in which, by means of motivation, the advertiser tries to influence the internal desires of the target audience and form her idea that their product is good stuff, which means that it is worth buying and evaluating all its advantages compared to other products of this kind:
Gather "round the good stuff.
Considering the informative function, it should be noted that the analyzed advertising messages also inform the target audience about certain properties of the product, thereby increasing their purchasing power and desire to purchase what they are offered, based on the described qualities:
We're gonna tempt your tummy, with the taste of nuts and honey, its a honey of an O, it's Honey Nut Cheerios.
Of course, the language design of an advertising message is motivated by the functions it performs. An analysis of modern English-language advertising messages shows that the studied advertising texts are the carrier and expression of the information that their author conveys, realizing in them the intention to convey the information necessary to achieve a certain pragmatic and communicative goal. For this purpose, all the means of expression available in the English language are widely used in the studied advertising texts. The presented advertisement is as short as possible, noticeable and expressive, and therefore effective and successful: beanz meanz heinz.
The author of an advertising message selects to create a text such linguistic means that would equally clearly frame the presentation of the information necessary for a potential consumer and encourage him to act, the advertiser needs, through emotional influence, suggestion and persuasion.
To create the necessary impact on the consumer, advertisers turn to a variety of tricks, using language design. Due to the combination of lexical-semantic means of different functions, available in the English language, the emotional content of the advertising text is created in order to attract the attention of the audience.
When analyzing advertising messages, one cannot but pay attention to the stylistic coloring of the vocabulary used in them. Slang and jargon play a special role in it, characterized by a certain stylistic marking, which allows them to influence the target audience and draw its attention to important elements of the statement in order to stimulate its purchasing power and desires.
First of all, it is necessary to note slangisms, which are characterized by a high degree of expressiveness due to the fact that they are based on certain stylistic figures, for example, on an epithet. So, in the example below, the slang not-so-secret contains a negative particle not, however, due to the contextual meaning, the created slangism is characterized by a positive connotation and evokes appropriate associations among the target audience, which helps to attract its attention to the specified advertising product. In addition, it is found as part of a metaphorical unit not-so-secret weapon in which the word weapons used in a figurative sense to emphasize that with the help of this product you can "amaze" any person, as it is of excellent quality: Your not-so-secret weapon .
Undoubtedly, slang and jargon are widely used in advertising due to their expressiveness and simplicity. So, in the example below, the jargon temp is used as part of a comparison in order to show all the advantages of work related to the promotion of sites on the Internet. At the same time, it is noted that there is no need to be a specialist in this field and work hard, but you can easily and quickly learn everything, which is extremely attractive for applicants interested in this proposal: Fly like a CEO, pay like a temp .
In the following example, the slang to kick is also used as part of the comparison, as it enhances the stylistic coloring and overall expressiveness of the advertising message, which is extremely important when it comes to advertising messages targeted at a wide target audience. So, thanks to its use, the target audience has certain associations that indicate that the advertised product is invigorating and tasty due to its special properties that are characteristic of energy drinks that can make a person more efficient and active: Drinks like a Soda Kicks like an Energy Drink .
Slang is also often used in reruns to attract the attention of the target audience when viewing or reading an advertising message. So, in the example below, slang is used Tosh, which is an abbreviation for the brand name Toshiba. Thanks to the root repeat, advertisers try to focus the attention of consumers on the name of the specified brand and associate them with those who use the products of this company, calling them "tosh", i.e. those who use or are simply a fan of this brand. Such an appeal is colloquial and communicative, as it contributes to the convergence of the brand and its consumers, further encouraging them to make a purchase: hello Tosh, gotta Toshiba? .
american slang gimme also used in repetition to influence the target audience and form a certain idea about the advertised product. So, in the example below, the target audience associates an advertising product with recreation, i.e. if a person wants to relax, you should buy and eat waffles, which will give heavenly pleasure and help you relax for a while, as well as satisfy your hunger. Consequently, the stylistic expressiveness of not only the specified slangism increases, but also the advertising message as a whole, as it was intended by the advertisers: Gimme a Break, Gimme a Break .
Give a hoot, don't pollute.
Wah ! So fresh for less!
Nothin' says lovin' like somthin' from the oven.
So, in the given examples, the stylistic properties of slangisms nothin', lovin', somthin', hoot and wah are enhanced due to the rhythm of the advertising message, which has a positive effect on the target audience and contributes to a better memorization of the advertising text, and therefore, its easier reproduction.
Considering the function of persuasion and influence in English advertising texts, special attention should be paid to the function of aggressive or soft influence. So, with the first method of influence, the advertiser addresses the consumer directly. There are no veiled remarks or hints. The advertising text uses only the name of the product or an offer to use it. That is why it is characterized by the use of an imperative, the name of a trademark or information about the direct purpose of the advertising object:
Get chummy with Rummy.
In rare cases, imperative verbs with a negative particle are used, as they have a negative connotation and may cause the buyer to change his mind about purchasing the advertised product or service. But in some cases, their use is extremely successful and appropriate:
Chocy Philly? Don't be silly.
When using the method of soft influence, the emphasis is mainly on the mood of the buyer, his emotions, feelings, rather than on his conviction to purchase the advertised object. With the help of hidden subtext, the buyer himself must come to understand that this product will make his life better. In order to achieve this effect, longer structures, rhetorical questions, pronouns are used, in particular you, your, we, our etc. In some cases, it is difficult to guess what exactly is being discussed without seeing the accompanying image of the product or service:
When you're crazy for chicken.
Within the framework of this study, a quantitative analysis of the stylistic features of slangisms and jargons in English advertising texts was carried out, which made it possible to identify these linguistic phenomena in the material under study (Fig. 4):
Fig.4. The use of slang and jargon as part of stylistic means
The study of the use of slang and jargon in English advertising texts also allows us to summarize the results in the form of a diagram (Fig. 4).
From the point of view of the scope of slang and jargon in advertising, it is important to note that, as a rule, their use is typical for the food and nutrition industry, which is largely of interest to the target audience interested in consuming fast and tasty food: Eatin' good in the neighborhood. Also, these linguistic phenomena are often used in advertising of gaming establishments or lotteries: Where friendship is the largest jackpot!. Cases of using slang and jargon in advertising of cosmetics are not rare: Keep your hair color "Wow". Unlike slang, the main purpose of using jargon is to appeal to a specific target audience that is well versed in a particular area, such as gaming. The use of jargon in such cases appeals to consumers who are interested in certain things, which contributes to the growth of their consumer interest and drawing attention to the advertised object and its competitive advantages.
Thus, the analysis of the stylistic functions of slangisms and jargon shows that their expressiveness and expressiveness are enhanced in the composition of certain stylistic means, namely metaphors, repetitions, comparisons and epithets. This contributes to the formation of the necessary associations among the target audience and drawing its attention to certain aspects and units of the advertising message, as well as the advertising product as a whole. Consequently, slang and jargon in modern English advertising texts have a high degree of expressiveness and stylistic marking, which has a positive effect on the advertising campaign, helping to increase sales of goods or services and attract the target audience.
Conclusions to chapter 2
In the practical part of this study, an analysis was made of the features of slang and jargon in modern English-language advertising texts based on a sample of 109 advertising slogans. Particular attention was paid to the semantic, derivational and functional features of slang and jargon in the research material.
The results of the study show that the detected slang and jargon are used in modern English-language advertising, both literally and figuratively. Such use of them is predetermined by the motivation and goals of advertisers who create advertising messages for certain companies. The main purpose of slang and jargon is to create expressive and stimulating advertising texts aimed at attracting the attention of consumers and increasing their interest in purchasing the advertised product.
From the point of view of the word-formation features that were found in the sample under study, it is necessary to note the following ways of forming slangisms and jargon: changing the meaning of the primary lexical unit, conversion, composition and morphological formation.
The influence and pragmatic impact of slangisms and jargons increases with their use as part of certain stylistic means, such as metaphors, repetitions, comparisons and epithets.
Chapter 3
Many researchers note the high efficiency of using the communicative technique. Based on the provisions of the communicative methodology in 1996, the Council of Europe formulated a new approach to teaching foreign languages, which is known as a competency-based approach focused on the formation of communicative competence.
In the process of teaching a foreign language, the formation and development of communicative competence takes place, which is focused not on simply transferring a certain set of grammatical and lexical knowledge to the student, but on teaching him effective communication with native speakers of the language and culture being studied.
In modern scientific literature, competence is commonly understood as the totality of language knowledge, skills and abilities. Together with the concept of competence, the term competence is used. These concepts are differentiated as follows: competence is a complex of knowledge, skills, and abilities acquired in the course of classes, which represents a meaningful component of learning, while competence is considered as "personal properties that determine its ability to perform activities based on the formed competence" .
Communicative competence should be considered as a person's ability to understand and recreate a foreign language not only at the level of phonological, lexico-grammatical and regional knowledge and speech skills, but also in accordance with a variety of goals and the specifics of the communication situation. It is believed, from these positions, that for speech communication it is not enough just to know the language system at all its levels, to master the rules for constructing sentences constructed in accordance with grammatical norms, but it is also necessary, in addition, to exercise its influence on the communication participant adequately to the tasks and situation of communication. and use language accordingly. Therefore, communicative competence can be defined as an individual dynamic category, which reflects the unity of the language and speech of the individual.
According to E.N. Solovova, the formation of communicative competence consists of the following levels:
Linguistic;
Sociolinguistic;
Sociocultural;
strategic;
discursive;
Social.
Linguistic competence is aimed at the formation and development in students of certain formal knowledge and their corresponding skills that are associated with certain aspects of the language, in particular grammar, phonetics and vocabulary. This competence is especially relevant in the process of studying such linguistic phenomena as slang and jargon, as well as the specifics of their use in speech. However, communication in each specific case also requires mastering sociolinguistic competence, which is the ability of students to choose language forms, apply them in the process of communication and transform according to the context. With the help of the formation of this competence, students form an understanding of the practical use of linguistic phenomena considered in the framework of this study in the process of communication to influence the interlocutor.
Given the fact that language serves as a means of representing the characteristics of human life, there is a need to form and develop sociocultural competence, aimed at understanding and studying the culture of different countries of the studied language . With its help, students learn to understand English slang and jargon and their semantics in the picture of the world of the English-speaking population in the process of learning English. Therefore, we are talking not only about dialogue at the level of individuals, but also about the readiness and ability to conduct a dialogue of cultures in the process of learning a foreign language at school.
However, according to E.N. Solovova, the competent solution of communicative tasks implies not only the knowledge of a cultural nature, but also the presence of certain skills and abilities to organize speech, the ability to build it logically, consistently and convincingly, setting goals and achieving goals. According to the Council of Europe, this type of competence is called strategic and discursive. No less important in the learning process is the formation social competence which implies the readiness and desire of students to interact with others, self-confidence, as well as the ability to put oneself in the place of another and cope with the current situation. In this regard, it is noted the need to form a sense of tolerance for someone else's point of view, which may differ from the opinion of the speaker. These types of competencies are also necessary in the process of working with English slang and jargon, as they provide an opportunity for students to form an understanding of the appropriateness of their use in a particular situation in relation to the interlocutor.
In the process of teaching the English language and the use of certain language means characteristic of it, it is also important to understand the specifics of speech impact, which is carried out in the process of a specific speech activity of an individual and is associated with the achievement of specific goals and objectives of speech communication. A.A. Leontiev identifies three ways of speech influence:
1. impact associated with the formation of new conceptual structures - concepts in the individual's conceptual system. Here there is an acquisition of new knowledge, new information about oneself and about the world;
2. change in the conceptual structure of existing concepts. New concepts are not introduced or formed, their structure changes. Here new information of a conceptual, meaning character appears;
3. change in the structure of the concept at the level of its emotional and semantic structure is a change in the evaluative, emotional component. As a result, a different attitude arises, a different place in the individual's value system.
At the same time, it should be noted that verbal communication can simultaneously be carried out at different levels of awareness, respectively, speech influence can also occur at different levels, which should be taken into account in the process of teaching the technique of speech influence, using slang and jargon in the English language.
Training in media literacy and speech impact is essential because young people today need to understand the functions of the media and other information providers, to be able to search for, evaluate, use and create information to achieve personal, social, professional and educational goals. The acquisition of media literacy skills provides teachers and students with a wide range of opportunities that enrich the educational environment and make the teaching-learning process more dynamic.
In the framework of this study, the possibility of using research material in the process of teaching English at the senior stage of education in school conditions is considered.
Task 1. Match English slang and jargon used in advertisements with their definitions. Distinguish between lexical units belonging to slang and jargon.
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very active or busy |
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used to express certainty |
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to succeed; to overcome smb. |
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2. Find English equivalents in your dictionaries. Try to use slang and jargon if possible:
· give a word, get around, go crazy, try, gizmos, crazy, bet, showdown (usually between groups of young people), relatives, stomp here, excessively, jalopy, chicks.
Task 3. Translate into Russian the following advertisements:
1. Wah! So fresh for less! (Giant)
2. A newspaper, not a snooze paper. (The Mail)
Our models can beat up their models. (Levi's)
The Actimel challenge. Give it a go. (Actimel)
Is this any way to run an airline? - You bet it is! (National Airlines)
Gather "round the good stuff. (Pizza Hut)
Task 4. Paraphrase English slang and jargon used in the following advertisements:
1. Hello Tosh, gotta Toshiba?
look, Ma, no cavities!
3. Made of incredible stuff.
4. Tell your cough to cough off!
5. Gimme a break, Gimme a break.
6. Run with the little guy…create some change.
Task 5. Put as many questions of various types as possible to the following advertisements. Pay special attention to the slang and jargon used. Translate the sentences.
1. Fast foodies know the deal.
2. Put a Tic Tac in your mouth and get a bang out of life.
3. Buy a bucket of chicken and have a barrel of fun.
Task 6. Express your attitude towards the following advertisements. Do you think that the choice of English slang and jargon suits their emotional and pragmatic charge?
1. Drinks like a Soda, Kicks like an Energy Drink.
It's dandy for your teeth!
Keep your hair color" wow".
Where the food and service are top notch!
5. It's cake poppolicious!
7. Make up your own advertisements using the following slang and jargon from the box.
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Your ad can be here! |
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8. Speak on the following topics concerning English advertisements. Use examples and slang/jargon if possible.
1. What makes English advertisements effective?
2. Why do people remember some advertisements and repeat them?
Would you like to be an advertiser? Why? Why not?
Is it necessary to use slang/jargon in advertisements?
5. What are the main functions of slang/jargon used in advertisements? Task 9. Express your attitude to advertisements and the necessity of their usage to increase sales and brand awareness.
Task 10 Role Play
1. You are a representative of the well-known brand company. You are having a meeting with an advertiser who is to create a catching promotion campaign. What are your key priorities when ordering advertisements? Discuss them with the advertiser.
You are a representative of a well-known brand company. You are having a press-conference with journalists who want to learn more about your recent promotion campaign with the slogan " Show'em you're a tiger, Show'em what you can do, the taste of Tony's Frosted Flakes, brings out the tiger in you, in you!". Answer their questions.
Thus, the proposed exercises are aimed at developing the above communicative competencies in high school students, as well as media literacy, given the rapid development of the advertising sector and media resources. Having the necessary knowledge, they will be able not only to identify slang and jargon in the process of communicating or reading foreign language resources, but also to use it in their further professional or everyday life. Therefore, the use of advertising texts containing slang and slang expressions is of high theoretical and practical importance in the process of teaching a foreign language and can be used to develop students' interest in the language being studied and stimulate their independent study of modern English-language media.
Conclusion
In the course of the study, the theoretical research work of domestic and foreign linguists on the topic of the thesis was studied, and all the research goals were achieved.
Within the framework of this work, the theoretical works of domestic and foreign researchers on the topic of the work were analyzed, the concepts of "slang" and "jargon" in linguistics, in particular, in the English-language advertising text, and its influence on the advertising text field were considered.
Consideration of the concept of "slang" in the scientific literature made it possible to single out two opposite approaches to its understanding due to the lack of an unambiguous definition of this term. Based on the analyzed works, a working definition was developed: slang is considered as a linguistic term denoting a set of special emotionally colored words that are not accepted in literary speech. Jargon, on the other hand, is seen as words used by certain social groups and carrying a secret meaning for everyone else. Like slangisms, jargon gradually penetrates into all spheres of human life for one reason or another.
There is still a question about the distinction between the concepts of "slang" and "jargon". First of all, it should be noted the vivid expressiveness of slangisms, which contributes to the coloring of the speaker's speech, while jargonisms are characterized by a hidden meaning that is difficult to decode by people who are not privy to certain areas. That is why jargon, as a rule, is used in narrowly targeted advertising messages targeted at a specific target audience.
In advertising texts, slang and jargon are widespread linguistic phenomena that enable advertisers to influence the target audience to encourage it to certain, pre-conceived actions. At the same time, the main emphasis is placed on the associative thinking of the recipient and his inner desires, to which advertisers appeal. Consequently, the advertising text and its stylistic content (slangisms and jargon) contribute to the creation of a pragmatic and communicative message aimed at a hidden impact on the target audience by appealing to its desires and preferences.
This study also analyzes the features of slang and jargon in modern English-language advertising. In general, more than 100 advertising messages were analyzed, in which cases of the use of slang (95%) and jargon (5%) were identified, taking into account their semantic, derivational and functional features. From the point of view of the semantics of slang and jargon in modern English-language advertising, it must be emphasized that advertisers resort to various language means that encourage the target audience to certain associations and actions. Analysis of the word formation of the identified slangisms and jargonisms shows that among the main ways of forming slangisms and jargonisms, one should note the change in the meaning of the primary lexical unit, conversion, composition and morphological formation.
The analysis of the research material made it possible to reveal that the degree of influence of slangisms and jargons increases due to their use as part of certain stylistic means, namely metaphors, repetitions, comparisons and epithets, characterized by a high degree of expressiveness and expressiveness.
The rapid development of not only advertising, but also media education makes it possible to consider the use of modern English-language advertising texts containing slang and jargon for didactic purposes, for example, in the process of teaching English at school. This study presents exercises on teaching English at the senior stage of schooling for the formation and development of not only media literacy of students, but also the correct understanding and use by students of the studied linguistic phenomena in English.
Bibliography
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Arnold I.V. Lexicology of modern English - M., Nauka, 2012.
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As a result of changes in the scientific paradigm that began in the 70s. and expressed in the fact that the language is conceived not as an immanent system, but as a system constituting a constitutive property of a person, the attention of linguists focused on the cognitive aspects of the language, indicated by W. Humboldt, who believed that "to explore the functioning of the language in its widest scope" - it is to investigate it "in relation to the activity of thought and sense perception." This vision of language puts a lot of emphasis on the notion of language communication, of which scientific translation is a part.
There are many definitions of the concept of scientific and technical translation, translation of a scientific and technical text.
So, for example, Z.N. Volkova believes that the main issue of the theory of translation is the problem of translatability. By "translatability" this author understands the possibility of accurately conveying the original author's thoughts with all their shades, emerging associations and preserving the author's style by means of the target language. Many prominent linguists abroad have questioned and still question this possibility.
Indeed, the thesis of untranslatability cannot be completely denied, since in any language there are always such linguistic categories for which there are no correspondences in another language, and this, to one degree or another, is reflected in the invariance of meaning during translation. However, the lack of correspondence is a relatively rare occurrence.
A.V. holds a similar position. Fedorov, who points out that only those individual elements of the original language are untranslatable, which seem to be deviations from the general norm of the language, tangible in relation to this particular language, i.e. mainly dialectisms and those words of social jargons that have a pronounced local coloring. Their function, as local words, disappears in translation. The invariance of meaning can also suffer when translating individual elements of phraseology. But in general, the whole practice of translation speaks in favor of the principle of translatability, and this is especially true in relation to scientific and technical literature.
Any scientific and technical text, regardless of its content and nature, can be accurately translated from one language to another, even if the original interprets such a branch of knowledge for which there is no corresponding terminology in the target language. In such cases, the translator most often resorts to interpretation, and the formation of the necessary terminology is carried out in the field of production or those scientific circles that deal with these issues. The appearance of new terms does not introduce dissonance into the general structure of the language; new terms are quickly assimilated, because terminology by its very nature is the most mobile and changeable sub-language of any language.
In this work, we will adhere to the position of L.M. Alekseeva and E.A. Kharitonova, who believe that the translation of a scientific text is a special type of communication, and the model of the translator's speech activity is one of the components of cognitive activity. It should be noted that despite the development of a general methodology for translation, the features and difficulties of translating the terms of a scientific text have been little studied, while they play a fundamental role in conceptualization.
Most clearly, the features of the scientific and technical text were singled out by V.N. Komissarov. He points out that the language of scientific and technical literature is characterized by the following features:
Lack of emotional coloring. This feature basically determines the absolute translatability of scientific and technical texts, since the reader should not have any extraneous associations, he should not read between the lines, admire the play on words and Puns, take the side of one hero and blaze with anger towards another. The goal of the author of a scientific and technical text is to accurately describe this or that phenomenon or action, this or that object or process; he must convince the reader of the correctness of his views and conclusions, appealing not to feelings, but to reason. True, when translating polemical speeches, one can encounter some emotional saturation of the text, however, in this case, the style of the original must be conveyed with caution, taking into account the norms of the Russian scientific and technical language.
Striving for clarity, clarity and brevity. The desire for clarity finds expression in the use of clear grammatical structures and lexical units, as well as in the wide use of terminology. As a rule, generally accepted, established terms are used, although there are also so-called terminoids (terms that are in circulation in a narrow sphere, such as local and company names, etc.), which greatly complicate translation, because are often missing even in industry dictionaries. The desire for brevity is expressed, in particular, in the wide use of infinitive, gerundial and participial constructions, abbreviations and symbols.
The special semantic load of some words of ordinary colloquial speech. Rethinking the words of everyday speech is one of the productive methods for constructing new terms. Therefore, there are many words that belong to the vocabulary of everyday speech and have the nominative function of the term. For example: put out - in everyday speech - "put out the fire", and for sailors - "go to sea", stroke - in everyday speech - "blow", and for mechanics - "piston stroke", hoe - generally "hoe", and for the builder - "backhoe", etc. This property of words is a particularly dangerous source of difficulties and errors for a novice translator.
The frequency of the use of words of the main vocabulary fund is different from the general literary language. The vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is much poorer than the vocabulary of works of art. Therefore, the frequency of individual elements of the general vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is higher than the frequency of individual elements of the vocabulary of works of art, while the characteristic features of the scientific and technical style include literary and bookish words and expressions, foreign borrowings, the predominance of subject-logical meanings and the rarity of figurative and contextual meanings.
The frequency of use and the relative importance of certain grammatical forms and constructions differ from the general literary language. In accordance with the statistical data of Kaufman S.I. the frequency of the use of active and passive structures in fiction is 98% and 2%, respectively, while for technical literature the ratio of the use of these structures is 67% and 33%. Therefore, Passive Voice is used 15 times more often in technical literature than in fiction. The definition in technical literature is used 3 times more often than in fiction. The prepositional position of a noun as a definition in fiction accounts for 37%, and for other cases - 63%. In the technical literature, the opposite picture is observed, namely, 62% and 38%, respectively.
According to the research of Nosenko I.A. and samples of 100,000 word usages, impersonal forms are used more often in technical literature than in fiction (-4800 = 260 and -3850=210, respectively, without taking into account combinations of the infinitive with modal verbs). A particularly significant discrepancy is observed for the definition of 2300 for technical texts and ~1090 for fiction. However, the frequency of impersonal verb forms combined with transitive verbs is higher for fiction (~700) than for technical literature (~160).
Rare use of idioms. Idiomatic phrases are peculiar indecomposable expressions that have a certain meaning, often independent of their constituent elements. Idioms almost always have some emotional coloring and therefore do not fit into scientific and technical texts. Quite often, idioms also have a not entirely clear meaning, which fundamentally contradicts the spirit of the scientific and technical language.
The use of abbreviations and symbols. This and the following characteristic is a consequence of the desire for brevity and clarity.
Application of special expressions and lexicographic constructions (such as: centers, and/or, on/off, etc.).
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the listed characteristics of the scientific and technical language should serve as a kind of program for improving his qualifications for a novice translator, because they indicate those moments that require, in comparison with others, a more thorough assimilation.
As already mentioned, in cases of difficulties in translating a scientific text, the translator must resort to interpretation, and this is possible only if he is familiar with the subject of the text. Therefore, not only knowledge of the peculiarities of the language of the translated text helps in translation, it is also necessary to be a specialist in this field.
According to A.V. Fedorov, a necessary condition for achieving the accuracy of a translation is a good acquaintance with the subject treated in the original. The translator must know the subject so completely that, in any form of presentation in the original, he must be able to correctly convey the content of the presentation without loss of information. This is not always easy. For example, in the sentence - "High strength to size and cost are basic factors in the evaluation of materials."
it is necessary to reveal the meaning of the combination of the words "High strength to size", which is possible only with an understanding of the essence of the matter:
"High strength-to-dimension ratio and cost are the main criteria when evaluating materials."
The highlighted words compensate for the loss of information contained in the original, which would occur in a literal translation.
Only ignorance of the subject can push the translator to preserve the word order of the original when translating the following sentence:
"In this case one curve passes through each point of the plane."
"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."
It turns out that one curve covers the entire plane, since it passes through all its points. In fact, the original refers to a family of curves" only rearranging the word order gives the correct translation:
"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."
If some of the author's thoughts are not clearly stated, the translator is obliged to state these passages in a clear literary language. However, in no case should one embark on the path of interpretation or development of the author's thoughts. This may lead the translator along a line that does not correspond to the author's intention.
It is also impossible to rely only on the theory and practice that are well known to the translator: the original author can talk about something completely new, often contradicting existing views. In other words, the translator must be able to independently reason on this subject, correctly understand even the vaguely expressed thoughts of the original author, express these thoughts in good Russian, without distorting the author’s thoughts one iota and without going over to interpretation. When faced with difficulties, the translator should never allow himself to make a "more or less correct" translation. He must either overcome difficulties or have the courage to admit his inability to translate a given word, expression or even sentence and leave it untranslated.
In this paragraph, the problem of acquaintance with the subject of the translated text was considered. In the course of the presentation, we came to the conclusion that familiarity with the subject is so important that it should be placed before a point that requires a good knowledge of the language of the source being translated and, if you have to make a choice between two possible translators, one of whom is perfectly familiar with the subject, but knows less language, and the other knows the subject less well, but is fluent in the original language, then the choice usually falls on the first candidate: dictionaries do not replace a good knowledge of the subject.
However, even despite the knowledge of the subject of the text being translated, in order to translate a scientific and technical text, it is necessary to understand that the basis of any scientific text is terminology. Therefore, in the next paragraph, we will consider the general concept of a term in translation theory.
Thus, revealing the specifics of a particular subspecies of translation, the special theory of translation studies three series of factors that should be taken into account when describing translations of this type. Firstly, the mere fact that the original belongs to a particular functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, the focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to choose such language means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And, finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, translation features proper can be found, associated both with common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of this type of translation process. In other words, the special theory of translation studies the impact on the process of translation of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in the FL, the functional style similar to it in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.
Within each functional style, some linguistic features can be distinguished, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. For example, in the scientific and technical style, these are the lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials and, first of all, the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary. In the newspaper-information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special nature of the headlines, the widespread use of newspaper clichés, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to these common features, in each language a similar functional style has specific linguistic features.
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- Introduction
- 1.4 Features of the translation of terminological clichés and set phrases in scientific and technical literature
- Chapter 2
- 2.1 Features of the influence of the context on the translation of medical terms
- 2.2 Features of the translation of terminological clichés and set phrases in the translation of international applications
- Conclusion
- List of sources used
- Appendix
Introduction
The theory of translation (N.V. Aristov, G.I. Bogin, S.A. Vasiliev, V.Z. Demyankov, A.N. Kryukov) considers translation as an interpretation in the light of the interaction between the objective and the subjective based on knowledge as a language, and extralinguistic reality. Interpretation is the process of comprehending the results of processing scientific facts and observations into a single system. Of course, understanding is not self-evident in the process of translating a scientific text, but is associated with the problem of assimilation of the text of the entire scientific discourse, and not its semantics. On the basis of understanding, the translator "rediscovers" the thoughts of the original, faced with the difficulties of translating a scientific text. We distinguish two main types of errors in the translation of a scientific text: conceptual errors and errors associated with text coherence.
The main parameter of translation difficulty in a scientific text is the identification and understanding of the main scientific terms embedded in the original text. If a term and its implication sphere are incorrectly identified, terminological errors can be fixed and, as a result, a pseudoscientific text can be created. To avoid pseudoscience, L.M. Lapp recommends paying special attention first to the model, then to the subject and logical plans of the text, which, in our opinion, contributes to the successful compression of the source text, i.e. correct understanding of the concept on the basis of explicated semantic milestones, and then the correct deployment, in other words, an adequate presentation in another language.
When translating, of course, it is necessary to take into account the expansion of the referent of the term, or abstraction. Abstraction is associated with generalization, the movement from the lowest to the highest. Violation of this process leads to a narrowing of the referent and, as a result, translation errors at the concept level.
Errors in the translation of a scientific text are also correlated with the typological property of the text - coherence - the logical deployment of a scientific text in which concepts are formed. Therefore, the translator's efforts should be focused not on translating a single term, but on creating a potentially dynamic intertextual space - a concept sphere in order to recreate multiple informational implications in a new text. Alekseeva calls such a model macro-text-centric.
Thus, the translation of a scientific text cannot be reduced to the search for direct terminological correspondences. We define it as a complex thought process, which consists in identifying and conveying the meanings of scientific concepts.
Scientific, technical and business texts began to be studied by linguists relatively recently, from the 30s - 40s of the XX century. Today, the language of science has become one of the main full-fledged and independent objects of research along with the language of fiction, literary colloquial speech and traditional dialects. The big and debatable general philological question about the relationship of the language of science to the literary language, to the national language is not the subject of applied linguistics.
Recently, interest in the scientific text, in the languages of science and technology has escalated due to the new tasks that are set for applied linguistics by the modern scientific and technological revolution (automatic processing of texts in natural language, standardization of terminology, scientific and technical translation, creation of terminological dictionaries). and data banks, linguistic support for automated systems). The solution of various applied problems is based on a multidimensional linguistic analysis of a scientific text as a set of different texts in a given branch of knowledge.
terminological cliché
A special text always represents, represents one or another scientific, technical or organizational and business knowledge. Consider the process of forming a special text on the example of scientific texts. Scientific knowledge (including technical knowledge here) is a set of ideal images in the human mind, reflecting the phenomena, properties, relationships and laws of the material world in the field of science and technology.
However, special scientific knowledge undoubtedly acts as the main factor in the formation of a scientific text. It is multi-link, multi-stage, associative, starting from general information about a particular branch of knowledge and ending with deep concepts associated with individual narrow areas. For example, a philologist has a certain sufficient level of general philological knowledge in the field of language and literature, and at the same time, he, as a rule, is a specialist in one or another relatively closed area - in word formation, phonetics, folklore, textual criticism, etc.
In general, the problem of scientific and technical translation in science has been studied quite well. We are interested in the correlation of the translation of terms and context, therefore, much attention is also paid to the concept of context and its study.
Thus, the purpose of this work is to consider the features of the translation of set phrases and terminological clichés (based on scientific and technical texts and dissertations).
The subject of the research is the translation of scientific articles and dissertations.
The object of the study is the features of the translation of set phrases and terminological clichés based on the object of study.
The hypothesis of the study is the postulation that the scientific and technical text has its own characteristics of the translation of set phrases and terminological clichés.
In connection with the goal in the work, it is necessary to solve the following problems of a theoretical and practical nature:
Give a description of the scientific and technical language of presentation.
Consider the general concept of the term in the theory of translation, different approaches of scientists to the interpretation of this concept.
Indicate and characterize the features of the translation of terms in the scientific and technical literature.
Consider the concept of context, the problems of studying the context in modern science and highlight the main problems of studying the influence of the context on the translation of terms.
Practically confirm the main provisions put forward in the theoretical part of the work.
Chapter 1
1.1 Characteristics of the scientific and technical language
As a result of changes in the scientific paradigm that began in the 70s. and expressed in the fact that the language is conceived not as an immanent system, but as a system constituting a constitutive property of a person, the attention of linguists focused on the cognitive aspects of the language, indicated by W. Humboldt, who believed that "to explore the functioning of the language in its widest scope" - it is to investigate it "in relation to the activity of thought and sense perception." This vision of language puts a lot of emphasis on the notion of language communication, of which scientific translation is a part.
There are many definitions of the concept of scientific and technical translation, translation of a scientific and technical text.
So, for example, Z.N. Volkova believes that the main issue of the theory of translation is the problem of translatability. By "translatability" this author understands the possibility of accurately conveying the original author's thoughts with all their shades, emerging associations and preserving the author's style by means of the target language. Many prominent linguists abroad have questioned and still question this possibility.
Indeed, the thesis of untranslatability cannot be completely denied, since in any language there are always such linguistic categories for which there are no correspondences in another language, and this, to one degree or another, is reflected in the invariance of meaning during translation. However, the lack of correspondence is a relatively rare occurrence.
A.V. holds a similar position. Fedorov, who points out that only those individual elements of the original language are untranslatable, which seem to be deviations from the general norm of the language, tangible in relation to this particular language, i.e. mainly dialectisms and those words of social jargons that have a pronounced local coloring. Their function, as local words, disappears in translation. The invariance of meaning can also suffer when translating individual elements of phraseology. But in general, the whole practice of translation speaks in favor of the principle of translatability, and this is especially true in relation to scientific and technical literature.
Any scientific and technical text, regardless of its content and nature, can be accurately translated from one language to another, even if the original interprets such a branch of knowledge for which there is no corresponding terminology in the target language. In such cases, the translator most often resorts to interpretation, and the formation of the necessary terminology is carried out in the field of production or those scientific circles that deal with these issues. The appearance of new terms does not introduce dissonance into the general structure of the language; new terms are quickly assimilated, because terminology by its very nature is the most mobile and changeable sub-language of any language.
In this work, we will adhere to the position of L.M. Alekseeva and E.A. Kharitonova, who believe that the translation of a scientific text is a special type of communication, and the model of the translator's speech activity is one of the components of cognitive activity. It should be noted that despite the development of a general methodology for translation, the features and difficulties of translating the terms of a scientific text have been little studied, while they play a fundamental role in conceptualization.
Most clearly, the features of the scientific and technical text were singled out by V.N. Komissarov. He points out that the language of scientific and technical literature is characterized by the following features:
1. Lack of emotional coloring. This feature basically determines the absolute translatability of scientific and technical texts, since the reader should not have any extraneous associations, he should not read between the lines, admire the play on words and Puns, take the side of one hero and blaze with anger towards another. The goal of the author of a scientific and technical text is to accurately describe this or that phenomenon or action, this or that object or process; he must convince the reader of the correctness of his views and conclusions, appealing not to feelings, but to reason. True, when translating polemical speeches, one can encounter some emotional saturation of the text, however, in this case, the style of the original must be conveyed with caution, taking into account the norms of the Russian scientific and technical language.
2. Striving for clarity, precision and brevity. The desire for clarity finds expression in the use of clear grammatical structures and lexical units, as well as in the wide use of terminology. As a rule, generally accepted, established terms are used, although there are also so-called terminoids (terms that are in circulation in a narrow sphere, such as local and company names, etc.), which greatly complicate translation, because are often missing even in industry dictionaries. The desire for brevity is expressed, in particular, in the wide use of infinitive, gerundial and participial constructions, abbreviations and symbols.
3. A special semantic load of some words in everyday colloquial speech. Rethinking the words of everyday speech is one of the productive methods for constructing new terms. Therefore, there are many words that belong to the vocabulary of everyday speech and have the nominative function of the term. For example: put out - in everyday speech - "put out the fire", and for sailors - "go to sea", stroke - in everyday speech - "blow", and for mechanics - "piston stroke", hoe - generally "hoe", and for the builder - "backhoe", etc. This property of words is a particularly dangerous source of difficulties and errors for a novice translator.
4. Different from the general literary language, the frequency of the use of words in the main vocabulary fund. The vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is much poorer than the vocabulary of works of art. Therefore, the frequency of individual elements of the general vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is higher than the frequency of individual elements of the vocabulary of works of art, while the characteristic features of the scientific and technical style include literary and bookish words and expressions, foreign borrowings, the predominance of subject-logical meanings and the rarity of figurative and contextual meanings.
5. Frequency of use and relative importance of some grammatical forms and constructions different from the general literary language. In accordance with the statistical data of Kaufman S.I. the frequency of the use of active and passive structures in fiction is 98% and 2%, respectively, while for technical literature the ratio of the use of these structures is 67% and 33%. Therefore, Passive Voice is used 15 times more often in technical literature than in fiction. The definition in technical literature is used 3 times more often than in fiction. The prepositional position of a noun as a definition in fiction accounts for 37%, and for other cases - 63%. In the technical literature, the opposite picture is observed, namely, 62% and 38%, respectively.
According to the research of Nosenko I.A. and samples of 100,000 word usages, impersonal forms are used more often in technical literature than in fiction (-4800 = 260 and -3850=210, respectively, without taking into account combinations of the infinitive with modal verbs). A particularly significant discrepancy is observed for the definition of 2300 for technical texts and ~1090 for fiction. However, the frequency of impersonal verb forms combined with transitive verbs is higher for fiction (~700) than for technical literature (~160).
6. The rarity of the use of idioms. Idiomatic phrases are peculiar indecomposable expressions that have a certain meaning, often independent of their constituent elements. Idioms almost always have some emotional coloring and therefore do not fit into scientific and technical texts. Quite often, idioms also have a not entirely clear meaning, which fundamentally contradicts the spirit of the scientific and technical language.
7. Application of abbreviations and symbols. This and the following characteristic is a consequence of the desire for brevity and clarity.
8. Application of special expressions and lexicographic constructions (such as: centers, and/or, on/off, etc.).
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the listed characteristics of the scientific and technical language should serve as a kind of program for improving his qualifications for a novice translator, because they indicate those moments that require, in comparison with others, a more thorough assimilation.
As already mentioned, in cases of difficulties in translating a scientific text, the translator must resort to interpretation, and this is possible only if he is familiar with the subject of the text. Therefore, not only knowledge of the peculiarities of the language of the translated text helps in translation, it is also necessary to be a specialist in this field.
According to A.V. Fedorov, a necessary condition for achieving the accuracy of a translation is a good acquaintance with the subject treated in the original. The translator must know the subject so completely that, in any form of presentation in the original, he must be able to correctly convey the content of the presentation without loss of information. This is not always easy. For example, in the sentence - "High strength to size and cost are basic factors in the evaluation of materials."
it is necessary to reveal the meaning of the combination of the words "High strength to size", which is possible only with an understanding of the essence of the matter:
"High strength-to-dimension ratio and cost are the main criteria when evaluating materials."
The highlighted words compensate for the loss of information contained in the original, which would occur in a literal translation.
Only ignorance of the subject can push the translator to preserve the word order of the original when translating the following sentence:
"In this case one curve passes through each point of the plane."
"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."
It turns out that one curve covers the entire plane, since it passes through all its points. In fact, the original refers to a family of curves" only rearranging the word order gives the correct translation:
"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."
If some of the author's thoughts are not clearly stated, the translator is obliged to state these passages in a clear literary language. However, in no case should one embark on the path of interpretation or development of the author's thoughts. This may lead the translator along a line that does not correspond to the author's intention.
It is also impossible to rely only on the theory and practice that are well known to the translator: the original author can talk about something completely new, often contradicting existing views. In other words, the translator must be able to independently reason on this subject, correctly understand even the vaguely expressed thoughts of the original author, express these thoughts in good Russian, without distorting the author’s thoughts one iota and without going over to interpretation. When faced with difficulties, the translator should never allow himself to make a "more or less correct" translation. He must either overcome difficulties or have the courage to admit his inability to translate a given word, expression or even sentence and leave it untranslated.
In this paragraph, the problem of acquaintance with the subject of the translated text was considered. In the course of the presentation, we came to the conclusion that familiarity with the subject is so important that it should be placed before a point that requires a good knowledge of the language of the source being translated and, if you have to make a choice between two possible translators, one of whom is perfectly familiar with the subject, but knows less language, and the other knows the subject less well, but is fluent in the original language, then the choice usually falls on the first candidate: dictionaries do not replace a good knowledge of the subject.
However, even despite the knowledge of the subject of the text being translated, in order to translate a scientific and technical text, it is necessary to understand that the basis of any scientific text is terminology. Therefore, in the next paragraph, we will consider the general concept of a term in translation theory.
Thus, revealing the specifics of a particular subspecies of translation, the special theory of translation studies three series of factors that should be taken into account when describing translations of this type. Firstly, the mere fact that the original belongs to a particular functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, the focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to choose such language means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And, finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, translation features proper can be found, associated both with common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of this type of translation process. In other words, the special theory of translation studies the impact on the process of translation of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in the FL, the functional style similar to it in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.
Within each functional style, some linguistic features can be distinguished, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. For example, in the scientific and technical style, these are the lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials and, first of all, the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary. In the newspaper-information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special nature of the headlines, the widespread use of newspaper clichés, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to these common features, in each language a similar functional style has specific linguistic features.
1.2 The general concept of terminological clichés and set phrases in translation theory
The study of the scientific understanding of terms and their features is not only within the scope of the study of the science of translation studies. Lexicology also deals with these problems.
Among the scientists who have made a significant contribution to the study of terms and the language of terminology, we can name the following names: A.V. Superanskaya, who dealt with problems of general terminology, B.N. Golovin and R.Yu. Kobrin (problems of the linguistic foundations of terminology), T.R. Kiyak, E.S. Troyanskaya (problems of studying the features of the style of scientific presentation), E.F. Skorokhodko (problems of translating terms in English technical literature), T.M. Pyankova, etc.
L.M. Alekseeva and E.A. Kharitonova consider the term as a verbal symbolization of specific knowledge, "a compress of thought". The term is not understood as a given, immutable, closed unit. The term is a controversial linguistic unit: it is unambiguous and polysemantic, produced and reproduced, neutral and emotional, dependent and independent of the context.
Terminological cliches are stereotyped words and phrases. Currently, they occupy a special place in the arsenal of lexical means, but they are most often found in periodical publications of a political, scientific and technical nature. Terminological cliches include idioms, set expressions and speech stereotypes, a set of ready-made phrases. For example, in the table below we show the translation of some terminological clichés from English into Russian.
The term is not static, but dynamic like any other language unit, since it is conditioned by the contradictions of the language itself. Therefore, the term "should be considered not as a dead product, but as a creative process" (W. Humboldt). The term not only informs us about the world of reality, but also contains thoughts about it, i.e. the term is self-reflective. The term theorizes information, creates an ontological model of knowledge. L.M. Alekseeva rightly notes: "The nature of the term is manifested in its property to be the result of mental activity."
Therefore, the term is both informational and intellectual.
The dialectic and inconsistency of the nature of the term determines the process of translation as not substitutional and informational, but different. As a result, in the aspect of the substitutive-transformational approach to translation, the term cannot be adequately translated with the preservation of its ontological properties.
Difficulties in translation are caused by the emergence of new terms. Terms form the most mobile lexical layer: in new, developing branches of science and technology, new concepts continuously arise that require new terms for themselves. Terms are born, changed, refined, discarded, and dictionaries usually do not keep pace with the development of terminology.
A different, narrower definition of the term is given by N.V. Aristov. A term is a word devoid of emotional connotation, having a strictly defined, specially stipulated meaning in a given field of science or technology. Terms should not cause any extraneous associations that could adversely affect the meaning of what is being said. The translator must understand the term unambiguously, which is especially difficult when the term is taken from the vocabulary of everyday speech. If there is no term for a given concept in Russian terminology, the translator should try to create it. On the contrary, if the author of the English original resorts to a descriptive device, speaking of a concept for which there is a Russian term, the translator is obliged to use this term.
1. Terms that are single words are often formed by using productive methods of word formation. Therefore, it is useful to remember the meaning of the main word-building affixes of the English language, which are productive in the construction of scientific and technical terms.
Suffixes - er, - or are used to form nouns denoting specialists, machines, mechanisms, devices, etc.: estimator-designer, calculator; excavator-digging machine, excavator; bulldozer - bulldozer.
Suffixes - ist, - ant, as in Russian, are used to form nouns denoting specialists: chemist - chemist; consultant - consultant.
Suffixes - ing - ment express processes, although they are also found in nouns denoting objects:
curing-keeping, concrete care (during the hardening period); replacement-substitution, replacement; building-building, structure; embankment - embankment, dam.
Suffixes - ion, - ance, - ence, - ship, - hood, - ure, - ness express mainly abstract concepts, actions, states, phenomena: abrasion - erasure, wear: maintenance - maintenance, current repairs; resilience - elasticity, impact strength; relationship - relationship, connection; likelihood; perviousness - permeability; flexibility - flexibility, elasticity; electricity - electricity (the vast majority of English words ending in - ty are translated into Russian with words ending in - awn and - stvo). It is clear that the listed suffixes do not necessarily refer to nouns of the specified character only. For instance; neighborhood - microdistrict, excavation - development, excavation - are specific concepts.
The meanings of the most common prefixes are usually given in all general dictionaries. Knowledge of these values is mandatory for the translator, because many words constructed with the help of prefixes are not entered into dictionaries. Here is an example taken from a text on the mechanization of construction production:
"It is better to overplant than to underplant." The meaning of the over prefix: over-, over-, over-, excessively; meaning of the under prefix: under-, below - necessary or normal. Hence, knowing that the verb "to plant" in this context means "to mechanize", we get the translation:
"It is better to mechanize with excess than with deficiency."
The prefix "as" - is used most often in scientific and technical literature and in conjunction with Participle II, means that the object is in the form or condition that it acquired as a result of the work done on it. For example: as-quarried - in the form in which (material) comes from a quarry, directly from a quarry; as-cast - cast; as-rolled - in rolled form (without additional processing); as-received - in the received form, etc.
2. Often terms are formed by giving an existing word (often related to the vocabulary of everyday speech) a new meaning, which sometimes differs radically from the old one (for example: lip-lip and flange; finger - finger and latch, etc.) Base the translation of an unfamiliar term entirely in its literal sense it is impossible, because. the latter only occasionally corresponds to its actual content, for example:
"Screen analyzes showed that there was deficiency in cobbles. "
In this case, the word "cobble" cannot be translated as "cobblestone". We are talking about a sieve analysis of natural coarse aggregates and the word "cobbles" should be understood as stones with a diameter of 8 to 15 cm:
"Sieve analysis revealed a lack of fraction 8-15 cm".
3. The term in most cases is a compound word or a set phrase. The term - a compound word is often a lexical construction built on the basis of the attributive application of a noun. As mentioned above, sometimes when translating all the elements of the term - a compound word receive an equivalent reflection: wind pressure - wind pressure; motor sweeper - mechanical broom.
In other cases, there is no lexical correspondence whatsoever: mountain flour kieselguhr, diatomaceous earth; pot hole - pothole (on the road); sound pressure level meter - sound level meter.
Intermediate categories include those compound words in which individual elements have acquired a specific meaning, far from the dictionary one. For example, in the term calf-dozer, the word calf has nothing to do with "calf" and indicates only the small size of the bulldozer. * In the term "table slate", the word "table" has also lost its direct meaning, and in the Russian equivalent "roofing slate" we do not find a lexical match for it.
4. Since the terms - compound words in most cases are of two-component composition, it is useful in some system to state the general rules for the translation of such terms.
a) If the first element means a substance or material, and the second element - an object, then the complex term is translated into Russian according to the scheme: "adjective - noun": concrete pile - concrete pile; steel bridge - steel bridge.
b) If the first element is a substance or material, and the second is an object that acts on this material or produces it, then the transfer is made according to the scheme:
"noun in dec. (2nd element) 4 - noun in gen. dec. (1st element)": sand classifier-sand classifier; steam superheater - steam superheater.
However, sometimes the translation is done using prepositions: mud mixer - clay mixer. Or both elements merge when translated into one word: concrete mixer concrete mixer; stone breaker - stone crusher.
However, the main method always gives positive results (clay mixer, stone crusher), which help to find the most successful translation.
c) If the first element is an object, and the second is an action directed at this object, then the translation is done according to the scheme: "a noun in the name of the case (2nd element) - a noun in the gender of the case. (1st element) ": stone breaking - stone crushing; water treatment - water purification.
d) If the first element is an object, and the second is an action performed by this object or with the help of this object, then the translation is done according to the schemes: "noun in them. pad. (2nd element) - g noun in genus. pad. ( 1st element)", "noun in the fall. (2nd element) + noun in the creative fall. or prepositional fall. (1st element)": wave propagation - propagation of waves; concrete setting - setting, hardening of concrete; water treatment - water treatment: membrane water proofing - waterproofing with a membrane.
Due to the similarity of the constructions of the English terms given in paragraphs c) and d), when translating them, it is necessary to carefully delve into the semantics of both individual elements and combinations of elements that form the term itself. The semantic analysis determines the choice of the Russian translation scheme. In the first two examples of point d) the action is performed by the first elements themselves (the concrete hardens, the wave propagates) and the translation is done according to the scheme of point c). In the third example, the action is performed using the first element (water treatment), which determines the choice of the translation scheme (compare with the second example of point c) water purification). From this it is clear that in order to achieve an adequate translation, it is necessary, among other things, to take into account the contextual environment of the term. The latter also determines the grammatical number of the Russian equivalent of the first element (wave propagation - propagation of waves or waves), which in English does not receive grammatical formalization, since it is only the basis of a noun.
e) If the first element is an object, and the second is its property, then the translation is carried out according to the scheme: "noun in the noun. case. (2nd element) - noun in the gender. case. (1st element)": concrete strength - strength of concrete; sea depths - sea depths. The last example may have the meanings: "the depths of the sea" and "the depths of the seas". The choice of these three options is determined by the context.
f) If the first element is part of the second, then the translation is carried out according to the scheme: "adjective (1st element) - noun (2nd element)": jaw crusher - jaw crusher; ball mill - ball mill.
g) If the second element is part of the first, then the translation is done according to the scheme: "noun in the noun. case. (2nd element) - noun in the genus. case. (1st element)"" excavator bucket - excavator bucket; piston ring - piston ring For the last example, the correct translation is piston ring, but the recommended translation still gives a positive result, which makes it easier to find the correct option.
h) Sometimes the second element of points e) and b) does not refer directly to the first element. This circumstance should be taken into account and, if necessary, the transfer should be made according to other schemes: tank pressure - pressure (gas, liquid) in the tank; cement retarder - retarder (setting) of cement. The words enclosed in brackets have to be supplemented to reveal the essence of the term (compensation for losses).
The examples given do not cover all possible constructions and methods of translation and should be considered as a general guide to the translation of terms - compound words of a two-component composition. * Deviations from the stated rules on all counts are possible.
5. If in compound words built on the basis of the attributive use of nouns, individual components are not grammatically designed, i.e. do not have morphological inflections and are connected to each other without the help of auxiliary words, then the terms - stable phrases consist of elements, the mutual connection of which is framed with the help of morphological means and auxiliary words. For example: scientific management of labor - scientific organization of labor; joint on the bevel - connection in the mustache; joiner "s glue - joiner's glue, etc. Due to the grammatical arrangement of the elements of the terms under consideration, their translation does not present any particular difficulties, except for the cases when individual elements of the terms acquire specific meanings that are not inherent in them in other phrases. So, for example: in the term "dead man" - anchor bed, anchor pile - the original meaning of the words "dead" and "man" is completely lost.
Thus, based on the study of the positions of scientists regarding the definition of the term, we can say that terms - stable phrases, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meaning of individual elements, are usually given in industry dictionaries, just as basic idiomatic expressions are given in general dictionaries, phraseological units and fusions.
When translated into Russian, the term can take the form of a single word, or it can be a Russian set phrase: as mentioned above, the phraseological funds of two different languages do not match.
1.3 Signs of terminological clichés and set phrases as the basis for their classification
As mentioned earlier, a term (including scientific and technical terms and terms of organizational and administrative documentation) is a unit of any particular natural or artificial language (word, phrase, abbreviation, symbol, combination of a word and letters-symbols, a combination of a word and numbers - symbols), which, as a result of a spontaneously formed or special conscious collective agreement, has a special terminological meaning, which can be expressed either in verbal form or in one form or another formalized form and quite accurately and fully reflects the main features that are essential at a given level of development of science and technology. the corresponding concept. A term is a word that is necessarily correlated with a certain unit of the corresponding logical-conceptual system in terms of content.
B.N. Golovin and R.Yu. Kobrin offer their own concept, on the basis of which terms are classified. The deep feature of terms allows separating them from other units of the language and dismembering the entire set of terms. This deep feature of terms is their designation of general concepts. Since there are several types of general concepts, different types of terms can be identified.
First of all, the most general concepts of matter and its attributes are distinguished, which bear the names of categories (matter, space, time, quantity, quality, measure, and others). Accordingly, the terms that denote categories are a type of category terms.
Further, at each stage of the development of human knowledge, in each era, a certain number of general scientific and general technical concepts appear that are used in any science (branch of technology) (system, structure, method, law in science, reliability in technology). They are joined by general concepts of methodological sciences - philosophy, general systems theory, cybernetics, computer science and others; some of the concepts of these sciences can be used, like general scientific concepts, in various fields of knowledge (for example, information, element).
At the same time, it should be borne in mind that general scientific (general technical) and interdisciplinary concepts are such not because they are used in a number of branches of knowledge, but because they have a common content, which allows them to be used in different industries, in most cases adding to the general content of specific features. As an example, we can cite the general scientific term method, the intersectoral term analytical method and the specific scientific terms mathematical method, the Monte Carlo method (compare also the intersectoral term cluster - a small team of particles, from the English cluster - a pile, accumulation, beam, bunch, and its applications in physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, sociology, general systems theory, as well as science and computer science).
Finally, in each field of knowledge and activity there are specific concepts of varying degrees of generalization: from the largest - classes (genera) to the smallest - species, as well as concepts that reflect aspects of the consideration of these classes. These two types of concepts are called species and aspect; as examples, the concepts of geology can be given: subdelta (species concept relative to the concept of delta, oil geochemistry, oil reserves (aspect concepts).
All of the above types of concepts find their linguistic embodiment in the types of terms. The terms of categories, general scientific and general technical terms, interdisciplinary terms, special terms are distinguished (examples were given when listing the types of concepts).
It is known that typology is the basis of classification. In this sense, the typology of terms described here - the division of terms according to their most important features - is actually a terminological classification of terms. The basis of all subsequent classifications are various individual features of terms - meaningful, formal, functional, intra- and extra-linguistic. All these classifications can be associated with the sciences and fields of knowledge in which they are used.
The first classification of terms by content, used mainly in philosophy, is the division into terms of observation and theoretical terms. Behind the terms of observation are classes of real objects, and behind theoretical terms are abstract concepts that usually depend on a certain theory, concept. Such a division is sufficient to solve the terminological problems of philosophy (philosophy of science), but to solve the philosophical problems of terminology, it is necessary to build a more detailed classification, since the degree of abstraction of concepts denoted by theoretical terms is different: from philosophical categories to general scientific and special scientific concepts.
So, in the taxonomy of animals above taxa lie the so-called taxonomic categories (non-specific objects) - species, subfamilies, classes. It is important that this hierarchy can also find expression in the formal structure of terms. In particular, in the same system of K. Linnaeus, the names of taxa (terms of observation) include the names of taxonomic categories: Betula pubescens - downy birch.
The second classification of terms by content - by the object of the name - is their distribution by areas of knowledge or activity, or, in other words, by special areas. The list of these areas can be summarized as follows: science, technology, production; economic basis; superstructure. Based on this sociological scheme, it is possible to formulate a list of headings included in the classification of terms according to the field of knowledge.
In the field of science, a group of scientific terms is revealed. It breaks up, speaking in general, into as many classes as there are sciences at a certain stage of scientific and technological progress; and in each class of physical, chemical and other terms, there are as many groupings (terminal systems) as there are different independent theories for describing physical, chemical and other objects and regularities. As for the differences between the so-called scientific-technical and socio-political terminology, then, first of all, political sciences (the theory of state and law, international relations, and others), according to the unanimous opinion of experts, are among the social sciences, and therefore political terms included in many social terms.
Further, all these terms designate scientific concepts to the same extent as the so-called scientific and technical terms; the only difference is that the former denote the concepts of the social sciences, while the latter denote the concepts of the natural and technical sciences. Therefore, if we strive for accuracy, then it is advisable to talk about the terms of the social, natural and technical sciences and about technical terms and terminologies, and not about scientific, technical and socio-political terminology. However, the terms of the social sciences have a number of specific features that oppose them to the terms of the natural and technical sciences.
This:
1) a direct, clearly expressed dependence of the terms of the social sciences on a certain theory, a certain system of views. On closer examination, the terms of the natural and technical sciences also depend on the theory, which, in turn, is determined by the worldview (for example, parallelism in geometry, mass in physics), but this dependence can be obscured. In terms of the social sciences, it enters into their content structure;
2) a kind of realization of the sign of consistency. Along with coherent term systems that reflect complete theories (political economy, Hegel's philosophical system), there are areas of knowledge for which systems of concepts and term systems have not been built (for example, a description of dance, fashion, and others);
3) the presence of terms with blurred boundaries of the concepts they denote, for example, terms denoting general concepts of a social nature (personality, ideal);
4) a wider development of synonymy and ambiguity than in the term systems of natural and technical sciences (language is a polysemantic term);
5) the inclusion of an evaluation factor in the semantics of terms (compare terms such as renegade, red, white, and green "green parties").
Technical terms function in the sphere of production and technology. These are units of the language denoting machines, mechanisms, tools, operations. Technical terms differ from scientific terms primarily in their less dependence on the concepts of the people who use them, although such dependence exists. In our time, technical terms often penetrate into scientific publications proper.
In the sphere of the economic basis and production relations, there are, on the one hand, the terms of the language of description (in the languages of political economy, concrete economy) and, on the other hand, the terms of the language of servicing the economy. The lexical units of the service language are such combinations of terms as the commissioning of the total (useful) area of residential buildings, which are called indicators.
Indicators are a set of features characterized by the given data. The name of the indicator includes terms denoting:
a) a characterized (measured) object of the economy (products, workers);
b) the state, properties of these objects and the processes that are performed with them (presence or number (of workers), production (of products));
c) a formal method (algorithm) for calculating an indicator, for example, the volume (of sales).
Within the framework of the superstructure, the administrative-political sphere (which includes defense, justice, foreign relations, and others) and the socio-cultural sphere (health, science, culture, education, and others) are distinguished.
In the administrative and political sphere, in particular, the terms of the language of administration are distinguished, including the terms of office work, the language of diplomacy, and military languages. True, some military terms are close to technical terms, another to economic terms, and a third to scientific terms. Military terms are a typical example of seam terms. Using their example, it can be shown that, in general, the boundary between the terms distinguished by the field of knowledge is rather unsteady. So, many terms of technical sciences can simultaneously be technical terms (rolling, drawing, annealing, etc.), and many terms of document management also appear in the terminology of office work (act, archive). Nevertheless, the classification of terms according to the object of naming is extremely important: it reflects the level of science and the development of the social structure at a certain stage.
The socio-cultural sphere, in addition to the terms of the social sciences (political economy, sociology, ethnography), includes the so-called socio-political vocabulary. A strict distinction between terms (social sciences) and socio-political vocabulary is important, in particular, for the construction of information languages.
The classification of terms by the object of naming within individual areas of knowledge is the most detailed classification of terms.
The third substantive classification of terms is according to the logical category of the concept that is denoted by the term. The terms of objects (mammals), processes (multiplication, office work, compression) are distinguished; signs, properties (cold brittleness), quantities and their units (current strength, amperes).
Linguistic classifications of terms are based on the features of terms as words or phrases of a particular language.
Classification according to the content (semantic) structure makes it possible to single out single-valued terms (shunting, nut, chromosome) and polysemantic terms, that is, those that have two or more meanings within the same term system (court - 1. a set of judges and assessors;
2. court session;
3. courthouse). From the point of view of semantics, terms are distinguished - free phrases (muffle furnace, certificate of residence) and stable (including phraseological) phrases (universal gravitation).
The classification of terms according to the formal structure is very fractional. First of all, terms-words are distinguished. They, in turn, are divided into root (water), derivatives (preposition, divisor, regrading), complex (social science, biosphere), complex abbreviated (capital investments), as well as words of unusual structure - telescopic (radio - from tape recorder + radiol), with the reverse order of sounds, chain formations (synthesis gas, 2,5-dimethyl-5-ethyl-3-isopropylheptane, backbone-backbone-backbone system).
Next, the terms-phrases are highlighted. The most common structures here are combinations of a noun with an adjective, a noun with a noun in the oblique case (degree of freedom), a noun with another noun as an attachment (seamstress-minder). There are also verbose terms, sometimes consisting of more than 5 words (the filtration potential of spontaneous polarization in a well is a GOST term).
Characteristic phenomena in the formal structure of terms are the truncation of one-word terms (cinema - from a movie or cinema) and the reduction (abbreviation) of multi-word terms. There are many types of abbreviations: alphabetic (k.p.d.), sound (ZHEK), syllabic (city committee), word-like (sigran - from synthetic granite), completely coinciding with the word (GAZ from: Gorky Automobile Plant); in addition, combinations of abbreviations with words (MHD generator - from magnetohydrodynamic generator).
Terms of a specific formal structure constantly appear using elements of artificial languages; word symbols (x-particle), word models (i-beam, that is, an I-beam similar to the letter I). Classification by motivation / unmotivation shows that there are terms whose meaning may or may not be explained by their structure. Here, terms are distinguished, fully motivated (gas pipeline), partially motivated (Parkinson's disease), completely unmotivated (rhombus), and also falsely motivated (lightning rod).
Depending on the source language, the terms primordial (sensor), borrowed (display - shawl, crosscut - German), hybrid (metal science, anti-icing) are distinguished.
From the point of view of belonging of terms to parts of speech, there are terms-nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs. For example, among linguistic terms there are nouns (voice, aspect), adjectives (unmotivated, parasynthetic, composing). Among the terms of musicology there are terms-adverbs (piano, pianissimo). Calculations show that there are much more terms - names of objects in percentage terms than terms - names of features. And the designations of signs in terms often appear in a concrete form.
The classification of terms by authorship reflects the sociological approach to terms. Collective and individual terms are known in this regard. So, the term helicopter was created by Leonardo da Vinci, the term industry - N.M. Karamzin, the term sociology - O. Comte.
According to the scope of use, universal (for many related areas), unique (for one area) and conceptual-author's terms are distinguished; for example, linguistic terms can denote phenomena that are characteristic of all languages (phonetics), for one or several languages (ergativity), or only for one approach (glossematics - L. Elmolev's term).
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translation journalistic elliptical
Translation of vocabulary: terms, abbreviations, clichés
The influencing function of the journalistic style determines the expressiveness of this style. Expressiveness is manifested primarily in the evaluation of events and phenomena. Evaluation is expressed by the use of adjectives, nouns, adverbs with the meaning of a positive or negative evaluation of the type: wonderful, interesting, important, sufficient, grandiose, unprecedented, grandiose, etc. Evaluation is also expressed by the use of high book vocabulary: daring, Fatherland, Fatherland, mission, inspiration, aspirations, feat of arms, etc. On the other hand, the assessment is expressed by colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary, for example: hype, frenzied, renegades, etc.
A sharp, well-aimed, figurative assessment is expressed with the help of metaphors, personifications, for example: the news is in a hurry, spring has raged, slander and hypocrisy go side by side.
Evaluation can be expressed not only by lexical means. It can also be word-building means, for example, superlative suffixes of adjectives, evaluation suffixes of nouns: the highest, the most interesting, the most important, grouping, hazing, assault.
Often the assessment is already expressed in the headings, so the requirements for expressiveness and catchiness are imposed on the title of the articles.
Expressiveness is thus expressed by a variety of linguistic means, including the structure of the sentence.
The informativeness of the journalistic style is achieved:
a) documentary and factual manner of presentation through the use of special terms, special vocabulary, professional words; b) the generalization of the presentation, its analyticity; c) “neutrality” of presentation, which is facilitated by non-expressive vocabulary; complex syntactic constructions are used, especially with a subordinating connection.
A characteristic feature of the journalistic style is the presence of special newspaper standards, a special newspaper phraseology, newspaper clichés arise, for example: make a huge contribution, work with a twinkle, hold sacred, increase martial traditions, universal values, etc.
The journalistic style uses linguistic means of different styles, however, the main style features of the journalistic style stand out very clearly, and the journalistic style is a special phenomenon, combining such features as expressiveness and standard, informativeness and popularization.
In addition to the features characteristic of the language of each genre of media texts and distinguishing, for example, the text of an analytical article from the text of a political commentary or sports news, it is possible to outline a range of features inherent in the language of the media as a whole. Since these features largely determine the specifics of translation in the field of mass communication, the translator must have an idea about them even before he starts the actual translation.
One of the important features of media texts of almost all genres is the combination of message and impact elements in them. Although the main function of mass communication is considered to be the transfer of information, this transfer is quite rarely completely neutral, i.e. absolutely free from elements of impact on the audience. In most cases, the transmission of information is accompanied by a direct or veiled expression of evaluation, language means and speech techniques that encourage the audience to a certain reaction to the information being transmitted, means of drawing attention to information or to the point of view expressed in the message.
Different genres of media texts are characterized by a different ratio and embodiment of the elements of communication and impact, different proportions of the actual information and expressive means. A truly professional translator must not only be aware of this correlation in every text he translates, but also be able to adequately convey it in translation.
Among the actual linguistic and stylistic features of the media language, the totality of which distinguishes it from the language of other functional styles, we can name:
A high degree of standardization of the means used: a large percentage of stable and cliched expressions, various journalistic clichés, lexicalized metaphors, standard terms and names, etc. (this feature is primarily characteristic of news materials and reflects the desire of their authors to create an impression of absolute objectivity and impartiality).
Significant event; as follows from competent sources: practice shows that; undesirable consequences; the working visit started/ended; during a working visit; summing up the results of the working visit; mutually beneficial cooperation; bilateral agreement; state armament program; Committee for Migration Affairs; significant date etc.
Tangible results; an invitation to visit Moscow I London I etc.; nuclear tension; UN Security Council; restricted information; a statement issued by; talks are underway between; the discussions are still in their early stages; some observers say I according to some observers; backbench pressure; negotiations are expected to begin... etc.
The expressiveness of the language as a way of attracting the reader's attention, expressing the attitude to the transmitted information, placing evaluative accents, etc. (among expressive, i.e., expressions with special connotations, one can also find speech clichés and clichés); the presence of evaluative epithets; direct appeals to the reader (these features most often characterize copyright, subscription materials).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
Sparkling response; fortunately/unfortunately; peacock narcissism; cloudless future; airport "Sheremetyevo", hated by foreigners; bombshell effect; how much time has passed since then!; with bitterness I note that; with the blessing of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force; Russian journalism is dead; you probably already know what we're talking about etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
A rather pretentious restaurant devoted to the consumption of caviar; his initial reserve began to disappear; his politeness was extraordinary; keeping marauding publishers at bay; he was hilarious as the title character in...; a speech of valiant lucidity; the Government has decided to weather the storm of business opposition; the volume of complaints is enormous; the business sector will have to swallow the pill of...; So don't be surprised to hear... etc.
Saturation with a wide variety of realities (social, political and cultural life), allusions (to literature, history, cinema, etc.) and quotations (realities are typical for both "anonymous", including news materials, and for copyright, allusions and especially quotes - primarily for copyright journalism).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
All-Russian population census; residents of Zamoskvorechye; panel houses; "Khrushchev's five-story buildings"; Union of Writers; fixed-route taxi; "dormitory area"; Communal apartment; "samizdat"; "revision tales"; "male souls"; land chiefs; "godless five-year plan"; Berne Convention; Lev Tolstoy-a genius, a classic, and something else a mirror; Annushka from a communal apartment who spilled oil...; these are not Manilov projects; "The connection of times was interrupted..."; mission Impossible; Looks like Uncle "Oscar"-yet "the most honest rules" etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
"new universities"; "redbrick universities"; the Ivy League; the Oxbridge colleges; independent I public schools; the Shadow Education Secretary; across-the-board increase; discount outlet; the Grape State[“Grape State” is about California]; the Cuban missile crisis; graduate recruiters; the Premiership; TV showdown/face-to-face; the hunting Bill; the Upper House; Knightsbridge and Mohammed Al Fayed's Harrods; a bright yellow carrier bag (in context: a Selfridges carrier bag); Cromwellian ruthlessness; the Suffragette movement; in the event of war with the Soviet Bloc during early Cold War tensions; Dr Doolittie's Pushme-Pullyu; a new Hadrian's Wall has been erected; the "divide-and-rule" policy; "Business of America is business"; "What's in a name" etc.
The use of colloquial, reduced, slang and profanity (the latter is more typical for the written texts of the Russian media and is used to express a certain attitude, for example, ironic, the author of the material, to create a certain image and stylistic (for example, humorous) effect, and in the so-called "tabloid" press" - also to shock the audience and / or attract a certain category of readers).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
It smelled of a sensational defeat of the favorite; you can, of course, snort at the blunders that are in Onegin (about the film); with books now, thank God, there are no problems; if you run your eyes over the shelves, your eyes will ache from the covers of cheerful colors; ... a generation that was brought up for one life, but was thrown into a completely different one; “It’s easy to reproach me: well, you messed around with your favorite journalism, played with words and what happened?”; “Since I sincerely don’t give a damn about politicians, I’ll talk about society”; “Well, what are you, a fucking writer? Did you do something? etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
was jetting off on a holiday and wanted an agreement before he hit the beach; Murdoch's group must juggle these factors while ensuring it does not take its eyes off the main prize; Tony Blair was accused of running scared last night...; Tony Blair has again given us all the slip; for all the media hoo- ha about hunting; he trotted fluffily into the Chamber for Questions yesterday, cocky as you please; Hands up anyone who has ever put the decimal point in the wrong place; Rubbish? Oh, really?; he was something of a heart-throb in the days of silent movies; he was quickly spotted by the passers-by, all of whom gave him the thumbs-up, etc.
Wide use of figurative phraseology and idiomatic vocabulary (both literary and colloquial and colloquial), including "deformed" idioms, wordplay, puns, proverbs and sayings (often also in a "deformed" form) (characterizes both signed and "anonymous" journalism).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
You cannot hide such an awl from the ubiquitous paparazzi; serial directors found untrodden detective trails behind the scenes of the theatre; her new film was pulverized; spice girls(about the Spice Girls group) in full financial order; tulips "new Dutch" were useless; then all three move to the sidelines of the historical process; to “eat” his many fears, Hitchcock needed sweet pills in the form of awards and prizes; our motto-to every healthy spirit-healthy body" etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
Daniel Bouton is licking his wounds; the human face of globalisation; the minister is barking up the wrong tree; Bush finally gets to follow in his father's footsteps; ENIC(name of company) has fingers in many pies; his son Charles, who cut his teeth opening franchises...; English Heritage took the plunge and bought the lease; not only they were powerful managers, but they played their cards close to their chests; this is one scenario where history is unlikely to repeat itself; the traditional summerhouse is dead, long live the twenty-first century summer-house! etc.
Widespread use of other stylistic means, techniques and figures of speech - such as hyperbole, litotes, figurative comparisons, metaphors (including expanded and "frozen", lexicalized), metonymy, paronymic attraction (especially in advertising texts), allegories, euphemisms, etc. (more often characterizes author's materials, comments, articles and notes on various topics, etc.).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
Bet on fresh faces; this super popular actor is also stunningly handsome; extensive estates went under the hammer; a piece of New York that came to us for next to nothing; a conscientious reader who does not want to break into someone else's life; "documentary" man of his era; hard weaving of music into the fabric of the film; who still opens this window to Europe?(about "Radio Monte Carlo"), the troubled economy of the early nineties; The White House issued a statement; The Kremlin's reaction was not long in coming etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
She is a typical field commander(about a Head Gardener) in this new land army; increasingly porous frontiers; Teflon taoiseach(Irish Prime Minister); out of the shadows; snail-paced consolidation; cabinet reshuffle; golden opportunity; fuelling Russia's economy; the masks will eventually slip; Downing Street insisted that...; Number Ten has not interfered...; now they(the gardeners) are attacking perennials, advancing shoulder to shoulder like police finger-searching the scenes of crime; Frankfurt pushed up too high...while Amsterdam edged forward(on banking policies); Kevin's heaven; crisp and crunchy crackers, etc.
A special feature of written media texts (and a special translation problem) are newspaper and magazine headlines, built on puns, puns, quotes, allusions and deformed idioms.
Examples from the Russian-language press:
The Russians sweetened the pill; Who lives on Rublyovka?; Don't tax me unnecessarily(article about taxes); "Oscar" of bad luck; What a wok(a note about the Chinese wok pan); Creation of sushi(material about Japanese cuisine); Whether in the garden in the garden; Deja vu; Roadside Picnic; Measure for measure; American in Paris; Under King Peas; lion hearts; Who is to blame and what to do? etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
Blinking Sphinx; Green Fingers; Lofty Ambition; Stone Alone; A Knight to Remember; Sitting Pretty; Where the Grass Is Greener; Palace Goes Pop for the Jubilee; 1066 and All That Ignorance of History; Face Values; Lock, Stock and Barrow, Much Ado About Nothing, etc.
It is obvious that such headings, like many other expressive elements presented here, cannot be translated literally. As a translation "response" to a pun in the source text, one would ideally like to see a meaningful pun in the translation text. Sometimes this can be achieved. An example of this kind is the translation into English of a note about contemporary collectors of silent film posters. The title of the original Russian text was: “Cadres decide everything,” a play on both the infamous Stalinist slogan of the 1930s and the two meanings of the word “cadres” (“skilled workers” and “cinema/photo frames”). Although there is a little-used word "cadres" (staff, workers) in English, it does not have a parallel meaning associated with cinema. Therefore, a literal translation of this title would not have any connection with the cinema for the English-speaking reader, nor any meaning at all. In this case, it turned out to be possible to put an English-language pun in the headline, based on a play on completely different words, but having a direct bearing on the subject of the note: “Posters for posterity” (literally “Posters / posters for posterity”).
If such a solution to the problem cannot be found (which happens quite often), it is better to change the title completely, making it neutral, but clear in meaning and related to the topic of the text.
The list of such examples could be continued indefinitely, but the illustrations given are quite enough to understand: from the point of view of a translator, all these features of media texts are problems that require professional solutions. In most such cases, a literal, literal translation is not possible, and in addition to the usual professional qualities, an excellent sense of language, ingenuity and resourcefulness are required to select the best equivalent for the translator.
If clichéd combinations of a neutral nature prevail in the translated text, then similar language means should be used in translation. Moreover, for many journalistic clichés used, for example, in the English-language press (and, possibly, in the press in other European languages), it is not difficult to find semantic and stylistic correspondences among the same kind of expressions in the Russian language, which are just as characteristic of media texts. . For instance: a significant event -significant event; as follows from reliable sources -as follows from competent sources; restricted information -information for official use / classified information etc. Where there are no “ready-made” correspondences at the linguistic level, the meaning must be conveyed by other means, without violating the genre, stylistic and communicative nature of the text.
The same principle, if possible, should be applied when translating figurative, idiomatic expressions and other expressive elements of the text. Thus, if it is possible to adequately convey an idiom in the source text using an idiom in the target language (similar in structure / lexical composition or in the communicative function that it performs), there is no reason not to do this - but only if the idioms correspond to each other not only in meaning, but also in stylistic and other parameters. For instance: to follow in somebody "s footsteps -follow in someone's footsteps to put the cart before the horse -put the cart before the horse; to burn one's boats/bridges -burn (your) ships / (behind) bridges; shadow cabinet -shadow cabinet; to pull the strings -to use/use connections; to give publicity/to make public to publicize etc. Again, in the absence of close matches at the phraseological level, the translation should be carried out by other means - in compliance with all equivalence parameters.
As for the realities, the names of organizations, positions, etc., here the translator has no or very little room for creativity. The names of international organizations, accepted designations of important historical and political events, geographical names and a number of other realities - that any translator working in the field of mass communication simply must know. Therefore, in most such cases, he either does not have a choice of equivalents at all, or he is limited to two or three alternative options. Thus, the only possible equivalent for UN Security Council- it United Nations Security Council; for the Cuban missile crisis -Caribbean crisis(less often Cuban Crisis) for the house of Commons -The House of Commons. It is precisely because many young translators lack the necessary knowledge, not to mention general erudition and outlook, that designations that do not correspond to traditional Russian-language names penetrate into the Russian language. Thus, translators of older generations who worked with English have always known that what we call “Central Asia” is called “Central Asia” in English, the Russian name “Middle East” corresponds to the name “Middle East”, and the city, known to all of us as "Beijing", in the English-speaking tradition it is often called "Beijing". This knowledge did not prevent them from conveying realities in translation exactly as they are designated in Russian. How, besides negligence (at best) or illiteracy of some of the translators who came to replace them, can one explain the replacement of traditional Russian designations with obvious tracing papers from English - “Central Asia”, “Middle East” and, quite anecdotally, “Bejing” ?
For the correct transmission of allusions and quotations in translation, background knowledge and at least minimal erudition are also needed. To find the correct equivalent for the title of an article "Much Ado About Nothing" or for a phrase from a magazine note: "What"s in a name, you might ask?", you need to at least recognize them as quotations and refer to the classic translations of the primary sources. And then the equivalents will appear "by themselves". Of course, there are cases much more complicated than the Shakespearean phrases given here, and not always even the most experienced translator can recognize a veiled ("unquoted") quotation in the source text. Where intuition or context suggests that a quote is hidden in the text, English-language quotation dictionaries (for example, the famous Oxford Dictionary of Quotations and Penguin Dictionary of Modern Quotations) can help an English translator. all texts all world literature, titles all films, etc., but the translator must compensate for the lack of such knowledge with intuition, linguistic instinct and constant reference to dictionaries and other reference books (and, of course, by expanding his erudition).
Of course, there are no ready-made recipes and universal techniques suitable for any situation. But if the translator is prepared in advance for such problems, if he is aware of the essence, content, communicative function and stylistic effect of these and other features of the translated text, if he is able to recognize metaphors and allusions, irony and puns, etc., if he has the necessary background knowledge and understanding of the reality to which the text is devoted, there is a hope that its translation will be adequate enough. Of course, provided that the translator has the necessary professional skills and the relevant working languages.
Although the foregoing can be attributed to one degree or another to the translation of other types of texts, nevertheless, outside the sphere of fiction, there is probably nowhere such a variety and richness of expressive means as texts from the sphere of mass communication possess.
