§31. Blood transfusion. Blood type.

Blood transfusion. Even in ancient times, people knew that with large blood loss of the wounded, it was almost impossible to tackle. The loss of a large amount of blood (2 liters or more) is very dangerous for the body. The stability of the internal environment of the body is disturbed, blood pressure decreases, the amount of hemoglobin in the blood decreases. To save the life of a person who has lost a lot of blood, it is necessary to transfuse him with the blood of a healthy person.

A person who donates blood is called donor receiving blood - recipient.

Blood transfusion has been used for a long time, but it often ended in death. That. that the blood of one person does not match the blood of another, was revealed only in 1901. Failures in blood transfusions are due to the fact that the blood of each person has its own chemical characteristics. When transfused, the blood type of the donor must match the blood type of the recipient.

Blood groups. The blood of all people is divided into four groups: 1, II, III, IV. With incompatibility of blood groups, red blood cells stick together, as a result, serious consequences are observed, even death of the body. The blood of people of group I can be transfused in a small amount to people of any group(I, II. Ill, IV). Therefore they are called universal donors. But the owners of group I themselves can only be transfused with blood of the same group I. Those belonging to group II can give blood only to groups II and IV. The blood of people with group III can be transfused to groups III and IV, and the blood of group IV can only be transfused to group IV.

Thus, blood of all groups can be transfused into group IV. People with this blood type are called universal recipients. But their blood (group IV) can only be transfused into group IV.

Despite group compatibility, only one-group blood is currently transfused. Thanks to recent studies, it has been established that each person has his own biochemically unique blood.

Rh factor (Rh -factor) is a protein (agglutinogen) found in the erythrocytes of humans and Rhesus monkeys.(Macacus rhesus).

Table 4Blood types

Demolition got its name because it was first discovered in the blood of a rhesus monkey. The Rh factor is inherited and does not change throughout life. If there is no Rh factor in the blood, the blood will be Rh negative(Rh-), and if present, the blood will be Rh-positive(Rh+). If the mother is Rh negative(Rh-) blood, and the fetus inherits Rh-positive(Rh+) the blood of the father, then between the blood of the mother and the fetus, an Rhesus conflict may develop.

Transfuse only compatible Rh-factor blood.

Prevention of blood diseases. The most common blood disorder is anemia (anemia). The causes of anemia are different:

1)large blood loss during surgery or injury;

2)violation of the formation of red blood cells (for example, with malaria);

3)decrease in the amount of hemoglobin;

4)lack of hemoglobin iron;

5)lack of vitamin B, which allows iron to be absorbed in the intestines and absorbed by our body;

6)poisoning with toxins of food products of animal origin, meat of some animals, causing massive death of red blood cells. With a decrease in the number of erythrocytes, blood viscosity decreases, heart contractions become more frequent.

A person with anemia is lethargic and gets tired quickly. He is not able to cope normally with mental and physical work. This is due to the fact that the tissues of the body experience a lack of oxygen due to a lack of its ♦ carriers” - hemoglobin or red blood cells.

Prevention and treatment of anemia is based on good nutrition, adding hemoglobin and iron-containing products to the diet. First of all, it is the liver, dairy products, apples. True, in apples stored until February-April, iron is almost absent.

Blood types, donor.recipient. rhesus-( jxucmop. anemia.

1. How many blood types are there? Which groups can be transfused with type I blood?

2.People with what blood type are called universal donors?

3.Why are people with IV blood group called universal recipients?

1.Who are donors? Why is donation encouraged around the world?

2.What is the reaus factor?

3.Can the Rh factor change throughout life?

1. Why do you think blood transfusions are used only in critical cases?

2.What diseases are transmitted through k|yun?

3.What is anemia? What are the causes of its occurrence and methods of prevention and treatment?

CONCLUSION

The internal environment of the body is represented by blood, tissue fluid and lymph (see Table 3)

Bloodliquid connect the bodies<ая ткань. Its body contains 5 liters. or 6-8% of body weight. The blood is well divided into a liquid part - plasma(55%) and solid sediment - blood cells(-15%). Plasma is 90% water. Substances (salts, glucose, etc.) dissolve in water and are transported in dissolved form. Warming up in the muscles, liver and intestines, the water gives off heat to the skin and lungs. So plasma water carries out transport of substances and heat exchange. The plasma contains salt(NaCl etc.) in constant concentration - 0.9%. This ensures the normal state of blood cells, so this concentration of salts is called physiological solution. 0.1-0.12% glucose (3.3-5.6 mlnmol/l) is dissolved in plasma. Its quantity is constant, because glucose is the main source of energy for brain cells and muscles.

Plasma proteins make up 7-8% and are divided into three groups: albumins(transport of fatty substances through the blood, redistribution of fluid, etc.); globulins(antibodies, protection against pathogenic microbes) and fibrinogen(blood clotting).

The content of about 1% of various substances in plasma is not constant: hormones, fat-like nutrients, urea, etc.

There are three types of blood cells: erythrocytes, platelets, and leukocytes. All blood cells are born in the red bone marrow and die in the liver ("depot *," graveyard * of red blood cells) or spleen.

Each type of blood cell has its own characteristics.

red blood cellsthe largest blood cells, 1 mm 3 of their blood contains 4.5 -5 million. They are red in color, biconcave disc-shaped, non-nuclear, live 120 days. They contain a complex protein hemoglobin. It carries oxygen (from the lungs to the organs) and carbon dioxide (to the lungs). iron compound (heme) with oxygen gives a red color (rust), so red blood cells and blood are red, and hemoglobin is called pigment/juvi. The amount of hemoglobin in the blood should be constant: 120-150 g/l (12-15 g/100 ml). If a person has a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin, iron, red blood cells or blood, a disease occurs. anemia, or anemia.

Treatment: good nutrition, iron supplements and foods. vitamin b,

If anemia occurs as a result of blood loss (injury, surgery). transfusion is needed. Blood loss of two or more liters is deadly. When transfusing, it is important to consider the blood type. It is determined by erythrocyte proteins, therefore, if the combination is incorrect, erythrocytes stick together ( agglutination) and the person dies.

Exists 4 blood types. The first can be poured into any other. so people with the first group are called universal donors(giving blood). Any blood can be poured into the fourth group, therefore people with the fourth group are called universal recipients(receiving blood). The second group can accept its own group and the first, and join its own and the fourth groups. The third also accepts its own and the first and gives itself to its own and the fourth groups. In addition to blood groups, it is important to take into account the blood plasma protein Rh factor(Rh). It is in the blood of 85% of Europeans and 99% of Mongoloids. They are called Rh-positive. The rest do not have it, they are called Rh-negative.

Leukocyteswhite blood cells. These are the only blood cells that have a nucleus and are able not only to swim with the blood stream, but also to move independently with the help of prolegs(like amoeba) and even out of the blood vessels. There are 6-8 thousand leukocytes in 1 mm * of blood. Leukocytes protect the body from pathogens. Therefore, their number may increase in the case of infectious diseases, with great physical exertion, etc.

Leukocytes are born in the red bone marrow and mature in the extralocular gland (thymus), lymph nodes, and spleen. These are all organs of the immune system. There are five types of leukocytes, and their percentage is called leukocyte formula. They protect the body in two ways: 1) by devouring microbes phagocytosis, or cellular immunity; 2) producing special protective proteins that kill microbes (antibodies) - tissue immunity. Leukocytes live 5-10 days (some longer). If a leukocyte "devoured" a lot of bacteria, it can become poisoned and die. Killed bacteria and dead white blood cells form pus.

platelets- platelets, non-nucleated small cells necessary for the process of blood clotting. There are 250-400 thousand of them in 1 mm "of blood. They live 8-11 days and die either in the liver and spleen, or when a blood clot is formed - a blood clot. T/yumb formed from strands of insoluble proteins stuck together fibrin, into which the soluble plasma protein fob rotates rhinogen. Large erythrocytes get stuck in a network of fibrin threads that have stuck to a wound (a hole in a blood vessel), and then others.

GNS cellsblood. Therefore, the thrombus is red. Normally, it is formed in 3-4 minutes.

The process of blood clotting is very complex. In addition to platelets, it is involved calcium salts, plasma protein ((shbrinogen and many others. etc. Blood devoid of any of the clotting components does not clot. Used at blood transfusion stations decalcified blood(deprived of calcium) and defibrated blood (devoid of fibrinogen). It remains liquid, does not thicken, i.e., does not coagulate. Serum called blood plasma without cells and fibrinogen.

Hemophilia -a rare hereditary disease in which the blood does not clot. It occurs due to the absence of plasma antihemo■philic factor(one of the proteins). Now patients with hemophilia, this protein is administered artificially.

The phenomenon of phagocytosis and immunity - the body's ability to resist infections - was studied by I. I. Mechnikov. Immunity is either natural or artificial. natural innate immunity all people have against diseases that only animals suffer from (distemper of dogs). Natural acquired immunity occurs after an illness (chicken pox, rubella, mumps, etc.). In many diseases, natural acquired immunity does not occur (flu, tonsillitis). artificial immunity produced after the introduction of therapeutic serum or vaccine. Vaccine - it is a weakened causative agent of the disease. After its introduction, our body will endure the disease in a mild form, and there will be active artificial immunity. Healing serum - These are antibodies. It is administered if a person is already sick or goes to a zone of possible infection. Serum antibodies do not last long, so this immunity is called artificial passive.

AIDS -a disease in which a person loses immunity. The causative agent of AIDS - the HIV virus infects some of the types of white blood cells, and the body cannot resist disease.

In addition to blood, the internal environment of the body is composed of lymph and tissue (intercellular) fluid. It also includes abdominal fluids: cerebrospinal, pericardial, articular, pleural. Tissue (intercellular) fluid is found in almost all tissues and organs, filling the space between cells. Its about 20 liters. Nutrients and oxygen passing through the walls of the capillaries. first enter the intercellular fluid, and only then - into the cells of the body. Carbon dioxide and harmful substances enter the blood from the cells of the body also through the intercellular fluid. The intercellular fluid itself is constantly formed from blood plasma seeping through the thin walls of the blood capillaries.

Lymphclear yellowish liquid similar in composition to

blood plasma. It is 1-3 liters in the body. It has fewer proteins, less blood cells than leukocytes (lymphocytes). It is formed from intercellular fluid, being absorbed into extensions - lymphatic pouches, at the ends lymphatic capillaries. Once inside the lymphatic vessels, the lymph slowly and passively moves towards the heart and flows into the blood in the vena cava. The role of lymph is filtration and disinfection of interstitial fluid and its return to the blood.

1. Cells that devour, dissolve microbes

2.Fluid that redistributes body temperature

3.The main energy substance of cells

4.Leukocytes in the lymph

5.Atlarge blood loss

6.Timeblood clotting

7.Person,receiving blood

8.The amount of blood in a person

9.Immunity throughvaccination

10.Scientist,studied the functions of leukocytes

11.transparent part of blood

12.Whiteblood cells

13.Squirrelsblood plasma,participatingin her collapse

14.Resistance to infectious diseases and foreignparticles

15.A disease in which the blood loses its ability to clot

16.Man donating blood

17.Vcoagulationbloodformed

18.Protein,discovered inrhesus monkey blood

19.Proteins produced in the bodyhitforeign substances

20.red blood cells

21.English physician who pioneered the smallpox inoculation

22.Red iron-containing blood protein

23.The combination of hemoglobin with oxygen

24.Blood platelets involved in blood clotting

25.The process of capturing and digesting foreign particles

26.Salt lymph nodes in the human body

27.body that temporarily preservescellsblood

28.Central organs of the immune system

29.Country where AIDS was first reported

30.The causative agent of AIDS

31.Secondary organs of the immune system

32.The tonsils are located on the mucosashell

33.Lymph nodes enlarge when

34."Intestinal tonsil * is called

Blood types

There are 4 blood types: OI, AII, BIII, ABIV. The group features of human blood are a constant feature, are inherited, occur in the prenatal period and do not change during life or under the influence of diseases.

It was found that the agglutination reaction occurs when antigens of one blood group (they are called agglutinogens) that are in red blood cells - red blood cells with antibodies of another group (they are called agglutinins) that are in plasma - the liquid part of the blood. The division of blood according to the AB0 system into four groups is based on the fact that the blood may or may not contain antigens (agglutinogens) A and B, as well as antibodies (agglutinins) α (alpha or anti-A) and β (beta or anti-B) .

First blood group - 0 (I)

Group I - does not contain agglutinogens (antigens), but contains agglutinins (antibodies) α and β. It is denoted 0 (I). Since this group does not contain foreign particles (antigens), it can be transfused to all people. A person with this blood type is a universal donor.

It is believed that this is the oldest blood group or group of "hunters", which arose between 60,000 and 40,000 BC, in the era of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, who only knew how to gather food and hunt. People with the first blood group have the inherent qualities of a leader.

Second blood type A β (II)

Group II contains agglutinogen (antigen) A and agglutinin β (antibodies to agglutinogen B). Therefore, it can be transfused only to those groups that do not contain antigen B - these are groups I and II.

This group appeared later than the first, between 25,000 and 15,000 BC, when man began to master agriculture. There are especially many people with the second blood group in Europe. It is believed that people with this blood type are also prone to leadership, but are more flexible in communicating with others than people with the first blood type.

Third blood type Вα (III)

Group III contains agglutinogen (antigen) B and agglutinin α (antibodies to agglutinogen A). Therefore, it can be transfused only to those groups that do not contain antigen A - these are groups I and III.

The third group appeared around 15,000 BC, when man began to settle in the more northerly cold regions. For the first time this blood type appeared in the Mongoloid race. Over time, the carriers of the group began to move to the European continent. And today there are a lot of people with such blood in Asia and Eastern Europe. People with this blood type are usually patient and very diligent.

Fourth blood type AB0 (IV)

IV blood group contains agglutinogens (antigens) A and B, but contains agglutinins (antibodies). Therefore, it can only be transfused to those who have the same fourth blood group. But, since there are no antibodies in the blood of such people that can stick together with antibodies introduced from the outside, they can be transfused with blood of any group. People with the fourth blood group are universal recipients.

The fourth group is the newest of the four human blood types. It appeared less than 1000 years ago as a result of a mixture of Indo-Europeans, carriers of group I and Mongoloids, carriers of group III. She is rare.

In the blood group There are no OI agglutinogens, both agglutinins are present, the serological formula of this group is OI; blood group AN contains agglutinogen A and agglutinin beta, serological formula - AII blood group VS contains agglutinogen B and agglutinin alpha, serological formula - VIII; blood group ABIV contains agglutinogens A and B, no agglutinins, serological formula - ABIV.

under agglutination we mean the agglutination of red blood cells and their destruction. "Agglutination (Late Latin word aglutinatio - gluing) - gluing and precipitation of corpuscular particles - bacteria, erythrocytes, platelets, tissue cells, corpuscular chemically active particles with antigens or antibodies adsorbed on them, suspended in an electrolyte environment"

Blood type (phenotype) is inherited according to the laws of genetics and is determined by a set of genes (genotype) obtained with the maternal and paternal chromosomes. A person can only have those blood antigens that his parents have. The inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system is determined by three genes - A, B and O. Each chromosome can have only one gene, so the child receives only two genes from the parents (one from the mother, the other from the father), which cause the appearance of two antigens of the ABO system. On fig. 2 shows the scheme of inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system.

blood antigens appear on the 2-3rd month of intrauterine life and are well defined by the birth of a child. Natural antibodies are detected from the 3rd month after birth and reach the maximum titer by 5-10 years.

The scheme of inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system

It may seem strange that blood type can determine how well the body absorbs certain foods, however, medicine confirms the fact that there are diseases that are most common in people of a certain blood type.

The method of nutrition by blood types was developed by the American doctor Peter D "Adamo. According to his theory, the digestibility of food, the efficiency of its use by the body is directly related to the genetic characteristics of a person, to his blood type. For the normal functioning of the immune and digestive systems, a person needs to eat foods that correspond to his blood group.In other words, those products that his ancestors ate in ancient times.The exclusion from the diet of substances incompatible with blood reduces the slagging of the body, improves the functioning of internal organs.

You don't have to be a vampire to understand the peculiarities of human blood. It is enough just to listen more or less carefully to the teacher at school biology lessons.

Well, if you still didn’t listen to him, and now you urgently need this knowledge (for example, to write a thesis in biology about blood types), we will be happy to help you and tell you about blood types as clearly and understandably as possible. Go!

A bit of history

As early as the 8th century BC, the writings of the poet Homer described the use of blood for medicinal purposes. However, in those distant times (both in the 6th century and in the Middle Ages), people could only think of using this component as a healing drink. It was believed that drinking blood promotes rejuvenation.

The circulatory system was described in more or less detail only in 1628. Scientist William Harvey determined the basic principles and laws of blood circulation in the body. It was thanks to his work that subsequent scientists were able to reach the development of a blood transfusion technique.

On a note!

The first blood transfusion took place in 1667. It was successfully conducted by Jean-Baptiste Denis, a French scientist, personal physician of King Louis XIV. On his orders, sheep's blood, collected by using leeches, was transfused into a 15-year-old boy. And the strangest thing is that he survived!

The use of human blood for the same purposes was made only in the 18th century. To save his patient, obstetrician James Blundell transfused her with her husband's blood.

Despite the active practice of blood transfusion since then, the mortality of patients was still extremely high. And all because such a concept as blood groups was discovered only in 1901, and in 1940 the concept of the Rh factor appeared.

Our days

Today in medicine, human blood is classified into two main groups:

1. AB0 system

This system was proposed by Karl Landsteiner in 1900. He discovered substances of a protein nature in erythrocytes, which he called agglutinogens. Karl divided these adhesives into 2 types - A and B.

Agglutinins have also been found in plasma. They are also divided into 2 types - α and β.

The process of agglutination occurs when agglutinogens and agglutinins meet. At the same time, agglutinin α connects erythrocytes with agglutinogen A. Respectively, agglutinin β connects erythrocytes with agglutinogen B.

Agglutination - agglutination and precipitation of erythrocytes carrying antigens under the action of specific substances of blood plasma - agglutinins.

It is impossible to find agglutinogens and agglutinins of the same name (A with α and B with β) in the blood at the same time. This is possible only in the case of an incorrectly performed transfusion. And if this happens, then red blood cells begin to stick together. Glued lumps clog capillaries and become deadly to human life. In this case, immediately after gluing the erythrocytes, they begin to collapse. As a result of decay, toxic products are released that poison the entire body, thereby causing all sorts of complications, including death.

This reaction (agglutination) is used just to reveal the blood group. This process involves donor(a person who gives his blood) and recipient(a person who receives this blood during a transfusion).

Important!

Neither race nor nationality of people in any way affect one or another blood type. It becomes clear at the birth of a person and remains unchanged throughout life.

Moreover, there are clear rules about which group can be transfused to whom. Here is the diagram:

True, nevertheless, if we are talking about the transfusion of large volumes of blood, then it is better to stop at the same group in the donor as in the recipient.

1. Rh system

There have been cases when, under all the optimal conditions, when transfusing even the same blood from a donor to a recipient, serious complications occurred. And the thing was rhesus conflict.

85% of people have a protein in their blood called the Rh factor. This name was given to him thanks to his first owner - the rhesus macaque. Accordingly, the remaining 15% do not have this Rh factor.

Blood that contains the Rh factor is designated Rh (+) and is called positive. The blood, where there is no Rh factor, is called negative, and it is designated Rh (-).

When transfusing, it is necessary to take into account the presence or absence of this moment in the donor and recipient, since there are no antibodies in the blood plasma for this component of the blood. True, if you transfuse the blood of a Rh-positive Rh-negative person, such antibodies can form. And this is also important to know!

In general, you see how important it is to know blood types, mathematical patterns in biology and blood type inheritance, as well as other nuances - this can save a life. And if you intuitively understand all this, but are not able to complete, say, a control, essay or coursework on blood types (biology), you can watch the video lesson below or ask for help from our authors- qualified biologists with experience.

And here is the promised short video lesson on blood types in biology:
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The accepted international classification designates each blood type by the presence or absence of two serum agglutinins, which are named alpha (a) and beta (b), and two erythrocyte agglutinogens, named A and B. The first blood type is determined by the fact that there are no agglutinogens in its erythrocytes , and in the serum there are both agglutinins - alpha and beta. Thus, the complete blood formula of group 1: I (0ab). In the blood of group II, erythrocytes have only one agglutinogen - A, and the serum contains one agglutinin - beta. Thus, the complete blood formula of group II: II (Ab). III blood group is characterized by the fact that erythrocytes have only one agglutinogen - B, and its serum contains only one agglutinin - alpha. Thus, the complete blood formula of group III: III (Ba). The IV blood group is distinguished by the fact that its erythrocytes have both agglutinogens - A and B, and its serum does not contain agglutinins at all. Thus, the complete blood formula of group IV: (ABo). Currently, it is customary to designate blood groups by a number and by the content of erythrocyte agglutinogens: I (0); II(A); III(B); IV(AB). The content of agglutins and agglutinogens in human blood is constant and does not change during life. The titer of agglutinins may fluctuate due to the state of the body, diseases. Erythrocyte agglutinogens appear on the 3rd month of intrauterine life of the fetus, and serum agglutinins - during the first year of life. The titer of agglutinins in the serum of children is low, which explains the fact that children tolerate blood transfusion (both one-group and universal) with a lesser reaction. It was found by selective adsorption that agglutinogen A has two varieties: A1 and A2, with A1 occurring in 95% of cases, and A2 in 5% of cases. Therefore, we can talk about six blood groups, but in practical work on blood transfusion, people are divided into four groups. The distribution of blood groups among the population of different countries has some differences, but on average it is believed that people of group I (0) - 41%, II (A) - 38%, III (B) - 18% and IV (AB) - 3% . The blood group is determined using standard sera or anti-A and anti-B coliclones. Blood transfusion is mandatory after: Determining the patient's blood group. Donor blood type definitions. Tests for individual compatibility. Samples for biological compatibility. Rh factor. In 85% of people, red blood cells have a special antigenic substance called the Rh factor. These people are considered Rh-positive, and the remaining 15%, who do not have an Rh factor in their blood, are Rh-negative. Transfusion of Rh-positive blood to Rh-negative patients leads to the production of Rh antibodies in them. With repeated transfusions, they experience a severe post-transfusion reaction that can be fatal. To prevent this complication, a blood test for the content of the Rh factor is mandatory. Rh-negative patients, as well as in all doubtful cases, can only be transfused with Rh-negative blood. The effect of transfused blood on the patient. Currently, substitution, stimulating, hemostatic (hemostatic), neutralizing (detoxification), immunobiological and nutritional effects of transfused blood are isolated. Blood transfusion is absolutely indicated in cases where it cannot be replaced by other methods of treatment, and refusing it will sharply worsen the condition (or lead to the death of the patient.

Blood group - a specific set of properties of red blood cells, different or the same in many people. It is impossible to identify a person only by characteristic changes in the blood, but this makes it possible, under certain conditions, to detect a relationship between the donor and the recipient, and is an indispensable requirement for organ and tissue transplantation.

Blood groups in the form in which we are used to talking about them were proposed by the Austrian scientist K. Landsteiner in 1900. 30 years later, he received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this. There were other options, but Landsteiner's AB0 classification proved to be the most convenient and practical.

At present, knowledge of cellular mechanisms, discoveries of genetics are added. So what is a blood group?

What are blood groups

The main "participants" that make up a certain blood group are red blood cells. There are about three hundred different combinations of protein compounds on their membrane, which are controlled by chromosome number 9. This proves the hereditary acquisition of properties, the impossibility of their change during life.

It turned out that with the help of only two typical antigen proteins A and B (or their absence 0) it is possible to create a “portrait” of any person. Because the corresponding substances (agglutinins) are produced in plasma for these antigens, they are called α and β.

So four possible combinations turned out, they are also blood groups.

AB0 system

How many blood groups, so many combinations in the AB0 system:

• the first (0) - has no antigens, but there are both agglutinins in plasma - α and β;
• the second (A) - in erythrocytes there is one antigen A and β-agglutinin in plasma;
• the third (B) -B-antigen in erythrocytes and α-agglutinin;
• the fourth (AB) - has both antigens (A and B), but there are no agglutinins.

The designation of the group in Latin letters has been fixed: large ones mean the type of antigen, small ones - the presence of agglutinins.

Scientists have identified another 46 classes of compounds that have the properties of antigens. Therefore, in clinical conditions, they never trust only a single group affiliation of the donor and recipient in blood transfusion, but carry out an individual compatibility reaction. However, one protein has to be constantly reckoned with, it is called the “Rh factor”.

What is "Rh factor"

The researchers found the Rh factor in the blood serum and confirmed its ability to stick together red blood cells. Since then, the blood group has been necessarily added with information about the person's Rh affiliation.

About 15% of the world's population has a negative reaction to Rh. Studies of the geographical and ethnic characteristics of blood groups showed that the population differs in group and Rhesus: black people are overwhelmingly Rh-positive, and in the Spanish province with Basques living, 30% of the inhabitants do not have Rh factor. The reasons for this phenomenon have not yet been established.

Among the Rh antigens, 50 proteins were identified, they are also designated in Latin letters: D and further alphabetically. Practical application finds the most important D Rh factor. It occupies 85% of the structure.

Other group classifications

The discovery of unexpected group incompatibility in all the analyzes done continues to develop and does not stop research on the significance of different erythrocyte antigens.

1. The Kell system - ranks third in identification after Rh belonging, takes into account 2 antigens "K" and "k", forms three possible combinations. It is important during pregnancy, the occurrence of hemolytic disease of the newborn, complications of blood transfusion.
2. The Kidd system - includes two antigens associated with hemoglobin molecules, provides for three options, is important for blood transfusion.
3. Duffy system - adds 2 more antigens and 3 blood groups.
4. The MNSs system is more complex, includes 9 groups at once, takes into account specific antibodies during blood transfusion, and clarifies the pathology in newborn babies.

The definition is shown taking into account different group systems

The Vel-negative group was discovered in 1950 in a patient suffering from colon cancer. She had a severe reaction to the second blood transfusion. During the first transfusion, antibodies to an unknown substance were formed. The blood was single-group by Rhesus. The new group began to be called "Vel-negative". Subsequently, it was found that it occurs with a frequency of 1 case per 2.5 thousand. Only in 2013, an antigen protein called SMIM1 was discovered.

In 2012, a joint study by scientists from the USA, France and Japan identified two new protein complexes in the erythrocyte membrane (ABCB6 and ABCG2). They, in addition to antigenic properties, are engaged in the transfer of electrolyte ions from the outside into the cells and back.

In medical institutions there is no way to find out blood groups by all known factors. Only the group affiliation in the AB0 system and the Rh factor are determined.

Methods for determining blood groups

Methods for determining group membership depend on the serum or erythrocyte standard used. The most popular 4 ways.

Standard Simple Method

It is used in medical institutions, at feldsher-obstetric stations.

The patient's erythrocytes are taken in capillary blood from a finger, standard sera with known antigenic properties are added. They are made under special conditions at the "Blood Transfusion Stations", labeling and storage conditions are strictly observed. Each study always uses two series of sera.

On a clean white plate, a drop of blood is mixed with four types of serum. The result is read in 5 minutes.

Defined group in the sample where there is no agglutination. If it is not found anywhere, then this indicates the first group, if in all samples, the fourth group. There are cases of questionable agglutination. Then the samples are looked at under a microscope, other methods are used.

Double cross reaction method

It is used as a clarifying method when agglutination is doubtful with the first method. Here the erythrocytes are known and the patient's serum is taken. The drops are mixed on a white plate and also evaluated after 5 minutes.

Zolicloning method

Natural sera are being replaced by synthetic anti-A and anti-B soliclones. Serum controls are not required. The method is considered more reliable.

If there is no reaction to anti-A agglutinins in the upper row, then there are no corresponding antigens in the patient's erythrocytes, this is possible with the third group

Express determination method

Provided for field use. Blood type and Rh factor are determined simultaneously using plastic cards with wells of the "Erythrotest-Groupcard" set. The necessary dried reagents are already applied to the bottom of them.

The method allows you to set the group and Rhesus even in a preserved sample. The result is “ready” after 3 minutes.

Method for determining the Rh factor

Used venous blood and standard sera of two types, Petri dish. Serum is mixed with a drop of blood, put in a water bath for 10 minutes. The result is determined by the appearance of agglutination of erythrocytes.

Without fail, Rh is determined:

• in preparation for a planned operation;
• during pregnancy;
• from donors and recipients.

Blood compatibility issues

It is believed that this problem is caused by the urgent need for blood transfusions 100 years ago during the First World War, when the Rh factor was not yet known. The large number of complications of single blood transfusions has led to subsequent research and limitations.

Currently, vital signs have made it possible to transfuse in the absence of one-group donor blood of no more than 0.5 liters of Rh-negative 0 (I) group. Modern recommendations suggest using erythrocyte mass, which is less allergenic to the body.

The information in the table is used less and less

The above systematic studies of other groups of antigens have changed the existing opinion about people with the first Rh-negative blood group, as universal donors, and with the fourth Rh-positive, as recipients suitable for any donor properties.

Until now, plasma prepared from the fourth blood group is used to compensate for a sharp protein deficiency, since it does not contain agglutinins.

Before each transfusion, a test for individual compatibility is carried out.: a drop of the patient's serum and a drop of donor blood are applied to a white plate in a ratio of 1:10. After 5 minutes check agglutination. The presence of small dotted flakes of erythrocytes indicates the impossibility of transfusion.

The direct harm of such a diet has been proven when trying to use it for the treatment of obesity.

Are blood types related to human health and character?

The conducted studies allowed to establish predisposing factors for the occurrence of some pathology.

• Reliable data are provided on a greater propensity for diseases of the cardiovascular system of persons with the second, third and fourth groups than with the first.
• But people with the first group are more likely to suffer from peptic ulcer disease.
• It is believed that for the B (III) group, the occurrence of Parkinson's disease is more dangerous.

D'Adamo's theory, widely promoted over the past 20 years, has been debunked and is not considered scientific in connection with the type of diet and the danger of certain diseases.

The relationship of group membership with character should be taken into account at the level of astrological predictions.

Each person should know their blood type and Rh factor. No one can be isolated from emergency situations. The analysis can be done in your clinic or at a blood transfusion station.