After the convincing victory of Prussia over Austria in the war of 1866 and the subsequent creation of the North German Alliance under the hegemony of the Prussian King William I, the unification of the German state was not completed, and the South German states remained outside the alliance created by Prussia.

On the way to the final unification of Germany stood the reactionary government of France, headed by Napoleon III. a single powerful German state in central Europe threatened French hegemony on the continent.

Despite the defeat of Austria by the Prussian army four years earlier, the French generals and the Emperor Napoleon III himself were skeptical about the Prussian military machine. The war with Prussia, which was rapidly gaining influence in Europe, allowed Napoleon III to solve two problems - to weaken Prussia and prevent the further unification of Germany on the one hand and, secondly, to stop the growth of the revolutionary movement in France, directed against the regime of the Second Empire.

In turn, the actual ruler of Prussia and the North German Union, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, in every possible way provoked France to go to war. He hoped, as a result of rapid successful military operations, to complete the unification of Germany and to reunite with the South German states, which is considered by historians as the beginning of a just and progressive war for the unification of a single German people. However, the Prussian government's plan to seize the resource-rich French territories of Alsace and Lorraine must be viewed as part of Prussia's aggressive and conquering policy.

So, both sides of the conflict were looking for a pretext for war, which was not long in coming. The proposal by the new Spanish government after the revolution of 1868 of the vacant Spanish throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern - the head of the senior Catholic branch of the German Brandenburg royal dynasty, who was a relative of the Prussian king William I - caused great indignation of the French government. At first, in the negotiations on the Spanish throne with King William I, diplomatic success was accompanied by the ambassador of Napoleon III to Prussia Benedetti. However, the intrigue masterfully carried out by Chancellor Bismarck - the publication in the German press of the so-called "Emsian dispatch" - caused a storm of indignation in France, and on July 19, 1870, the North German Reichstag was officially informed of France's declaration of war on Prussia, which Bismarck wanted - to force France to formally start a war first.

Parties to the conflict.

All the states of the North German Union and southern Germany took the side of Prussia. France found itself without allies, which was largely facilitated by the Russian position of neutrality, on the one hand, and the mediocre policy of Napoleon III in relations with the British Empire and Italy, on the other. Thirsting revenge for the humiliating defeat in the war of 1866, Austria until the last moment did not dare to open a second front against Prussia and did not start hostilities.

The Prussian army was superior to the French in many respects - in size, combat training, steel artillery of the Krupp factories in Germany against the bronze guns of the French. Germany's well-branched railway network allowed for a rapid mobilization and transfer of German troops to the front line, which the French could not afford. The superiority of the French small arms - the Chasspeau rifle of the 1866 model - over the Prussian Dreise rifle of the 1849 model could in no way change the course of hostilities in favor of the French army.

The plan of the French government was to deliver the main blow in the Bavarian Palatinate, intending to advance along the border of the North German Alliance and thus sever it from southern Germany. Napoleon III also believed that after the first successes of the French army, Austria and Italy would conclude an alliance with him and begin military operations against Prussia.

The outstanding Prussian military leader, Field Marshal Helmut Moltke Sr., who, along with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Field Marshal Albrecht von Roon, must be considered one of the founders of the united German state, developed a strategic plan that provides for a swift offensive in Alsace, the defeat of the main directions enemy forces in a general battle and the subsequent capture of Paris. Moltke's plan also took into account the possibility of military action against Austria in the event that the latter entered the war against Prussia on the side of France.

Fighting between France and Prussia.

Contrary to French plans, the mobilization of the army was extremely slow and unsatisfactory, which was generally aided by the confusion that reigned within the Second Empire. By August 1870, French troops managed to concentrate only 220 thousand people with 800 guns near the borders in Lorraine and Alsace. The troops were consolidated into one Rhine army under the command of the Emperor Napoleon III himself.

In contrast to France, Prussia very quickly mobilized its armed forces and, by August 1870, three of its armies of over 400 thousand people with 1600 modern guns, in full combat readiness entered the Bavarian Palatinate and southwestern Prussia. In addition to the Prussian troops, the 3rd Army also included South German troops. The commander-in-chief of the united German army was the chief of the general staff, Field Marshal Moltke Sr.

On August 2, the French corps went on the offensive and drove the Prussian garrison out of Saarbrücken, but already on August 4, the 3rd Prussian army launched an offensive in the direction of Alsace and defeated the French division near Weissenburg.

After this first defeat, Napoleon III relinquished the supreme command of the French armed forces and the Rhine army was divided into two armies: the 1st (1st, 5th and 7th corps, located in Alsace) under the command of Marshal McMahon and 2- yu (2nd, 3rd and 4th corps, located in Lorraine) under the command of Marshal Bazin.

The 3rd Prussian army invaded Alsace, and McMahon had to withdraw to Chalon-sur-Marne. In the 20th of August, a new French grouping was formed - the Chalon army under the command of McMahon. Napoleon III intended to send this army to Paris, since the 3rd German army had already begun to develop an offensive in the direction of the French capital.

On August 6, the 1st and 2nd Prussian armies launched an offensive against Bazin's army in Lorraine. The French retreated to the fortified fortress of Metz, and, after being defeated in the battles of Gravolta and Saint-Privy, Marshal Bazin decided to lock himself in the fortress. The Germans regrouped their forces and formed the 4th Meuse Army, which was supposed to move in the direction of Paris and at the same time, together with the 3rd Prussian army, act against the French Chalon army of Marshal McMahon.

The French government made the wrong decision and, instead of providing protection for Paris, sent the Chalon army to help the besieged troops of Bazin.

On September 1, 1870, the Chalon army was surrounded by German troops near the weakly fortified fortress of Sedan and cut off from Metz; The 3rd Prussian Army cut off the retreat of McMahon's group southwest to Reims. After a bloody battle, Prussian troops occupied the dominant heights over Sedan and began a merciless artillery bombardment of the French. After suffering colossal losses in shelling by the Prussian troops, the French Chalon army was forced to raise the white flag and begin negotiations for surrender. Under the terms of surrender, the entire Chalon army, together with the Emperor Napoleon III, who was with it, surrendered. As a result of the battle at Sedan, the French troops lost about 17 thousand people killed and wounded, as well as over 100 thousand prisoners. Prussian losses amounted to about 9 thousand people killed and wounded. On September 4, the 3rd and 4th Prussian armies continued their attack on Paris.

After the defeat of the French army at Sedan, a coup took place in Paris as a result of which the government of Napoleon III was overthrown and the Third Republic was proclaimed. The new French government proclaimed itself a government of National Defense and began to form new armies in the provinces. Military, sailors and volunteers flocked to Paris from all over France. By September 17, there were about 80 thousand regular troops and more than 300 thousand irregulars in Paris. On September 17, the Prussian armies approached Paris and blockaded it.

On October 27, 1870, the French army of Marshal Bazin, besieged in Metz, surrendered to the Prussian troops. Many historians consider Bazin to be a traitor, since The 2nd French army was quite large and quite efficient. One way or another, Bazin's surrender made it possible for the Prussian command to send the 1st army to the north, and the 2nd to the Loire.

On December 4, the approaching 2nd Prussian army managed to push back the newly formed French Army of the Loire across the Loire River and capture Orleans.

Despite the fact that the French people heroically defended their country, the National Defense government was unable to organize a worthy rebuff to the German troops. The uprising that broke out on October 31, 1870 in Paris against the government, which was pursuing a mediocre policy of defending France, was brutally suppressed by regular units of the French National Guard.

On January 26, 1871, the French government signed an agreement on the surrender of Paris, and on the 28th concluded an armistice with the enemy.

The armistice on January 28 did not extend to the eastern departments of France, where it was supposed to enter into force after an agreement was reached on a demarcation line between the warring parties in these areas.

The Loire army was pushed back by the Prussians to Switzerland, where it had to lay down its arms. Hero of Italy Giuseppe Garibaldi fought on the side of the French and commanded a corps, and subsequently the international volunteer Vosgesse army, but was unable to support the French Army of the Loire.

On February 18, 1871, the French fortress of Belfort surrendered, and the last hostilities in France ended.

Results of the Franco-Prussian War.

The National Assembly appointed the French statesman Louis Adolphe Thiers as the head of the new government (later president of the republic). Following this, on March 18, 1871, a rebellion broke out in Paris, and power in the capital passed to the Paris Commune. A bloody civil war broke out between the Commune and Thiers' supporters.

On May 10, 1871, in Frankfurt, the Thiers government was forced to sign a peace treaty with Germany on very difficult conditions for France. Alsace and East Lorraine fell to Germany, and France pledged to pay a huge contribution of 5 billion francs.

The most important consequence of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was the completion of the unification of Germany under the hegemony of Prussia. On January 18, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor.

The military losses of France (killed, from wounds, from disease, in captivity) amounted to over 140 thousand people. The losses of Prussia and the allies - about 50 thousand people. The Frankfurt Peace Treaty of 1871, humiliating and difficult for France, was for a long time a bleeding wound for the French Republic. The outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918) was largely due to the consequences of the Franco-Prussian War and the catastrophic defeat of France in this war.

The first decade and a half after the repeated proclamation of the empire in France in the 19th century, Napoleon lll aspired to act as the father of all Frenchmen. Having created a luxurious courtyard, bringing the aristocracy and industrialists who were enriching themselves on military orders closer to ceba, Bonaparte's nephew secured the support of the nobility and the wealthy strata of the population. The introduction of universal suffrage for men over the age of 21, the abolition of laws prohibiting strikes, the permission to create workers' organizations, and an increase in wages in public enterprises were met with satisfaction by the population.

The policy of Napoleon lll gave rise to such a term as "Bonapartism", which was understood as a course based on concessions to the demands of all strata of society, including those with opposing interests. This made it possible to increase the influence and authority of the authorities without repression and terror. The pursuit of such a policy required significant resources, which could be provided either by a prosperous economy or by constant external conquests.

The economic crisis of the late 1860s. led to an aggravation of the situation in the country. Strikes have become more frequent, the representation of supporters of the republican form of government has expanded at the next elections to the legislative body.

Internal difficulties were combined with the deterioration of France's international position.

The ambitious plans of Napoleon lll to return France to the role of the first power in Europe did not suit the leading countries of the world. Russia was hostile to France, which did not forgive her defeat in the Crimean War. Italy, forced to cede Nice and Savoy to France for very limited support during the war of 1859, also did not have good feelings for its neighbor. In addition, the French troops occupying Rome hindered the final unification of the country, Austria, having lost its Italian possessions in the war with France, was not inclined to show solidarity with her. The influence of France in Egypt, which allowed her in 1869 to build the Suez Canal, alarmed the ruling circles of England. They saw French control over the longest route from Europe to Asia as a threat to their dominions in India.

The diplomatic isolation of France was used by Prussia, where the influence of France on the southern German states (Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt) was seen as an obstacle to the completion of the unification of German lands. The reason for the war was the question of succession to the throne in Spain.

The proposal of the King of Prussia Wilhelm l about the occupation of the vacant throne in Madrid by a prince from the House of Hohenzollerns was rejected by Napoleon lll. He, in an ultimatum, demanded the Goths of the King of Prussia from his claims. William l was inclined to concede, but Bismarck edited the king's response so that it acquired a character offensive to the emperor of France.

July 14, 1870 Napoleon lll declared war on Prussia. Thus, Bismarck achieved his goal: in the eyes of other powers, France looked like an attacking side. Napoleon lll hoped that the war with Prussia would consolidate the nation, restore the prestige of France and expand its borders. However, Prussia was much better prepared for war, its army acted according to a clear plan developed by the chief of staff G. von Moltke (1800-1891).

From the very beginning of hostilities, the Prussian army managed to seize the initiative and inflict significant damage on the French troops, which indiscriminately retreated along the entire front. On September 2, 1870, more than 100 thousand French soldiers and officers surrounded in the Sedan area surrendered, the Emperor Napoleon was taken prisoner, and on September 16 German troops approached Paris.

The news of the capture of the emperor put an end to the Second Empire. In Paris, an interim government of national defense was formed and elections to a constituent assembly were called. The Parisians armed themselves, in a huge city with a population of more than 1.5 million people, a national guard was created, which prevented the Prussians from seizing Paris.

Nevertheless, it was no longer possible to turn the tide of the war. On October 27, the French army surrendered, surrounded in the fortress of Metz. Paris was under siege for more than four months, despite the bombing, famine and food shortages.

The impotence of the government aroused growing discontent among the Parisians, and suspicions of treason grew. The unrest that flared up repeatedly in the city alarmed the authorities. Fears of the establishment of a dictatorship of the Jacobin type pushed the government to conclude an armistice on January 28, 1871 on the terms dictated by Prussia - the resistance ceased. Paris paid an indemnity, its forts and artillery were transferred to the Prussian troops. At the same time, they failed to disarm the National Guard.

In the National Assembly, the monarchists won the majority in the elections. However, the deputies spoke in favor of preserving the republic, in whose name the peace was concluded. France undertook to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs in gold, yielding to Alsace and Lorraine, rich in iron ore. These conditions laid the foundation for a long confrontation between France, which did not accept the loss of part of its territory, and the Hermanian Empire, the creation of which was declared on January 18, 1871.

The entry into force of the peace treaty and the withdrawal of German troops from the territory of France were delayed by the uprising that began in Paris on March 18, 1871. The pretext for it was an attempt by government forces to take away the artillery from the National Guard. The insurgent guards took possession of the city. The government fled to the former royal residence - Versailles. In Paris, an organ of self-government was elected, uniting the executive and legislative powers, - the Commune. The uprisings swept through other cities of France - Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse and others, but the Communes created in them did not manage to establish themselves for more than a few days.

The Paris Commune lasted 72 days and attracted the attention of both governments and revolutionary democrats in Europe. Polish and Belgian revolutionaries fought on the side of the Communards against the Versailles troops. The experience of the Commune was subsequently viewed by Marxists, leaders of revolutionary movements, as a prototype of the future workers' government.

Meanwhile, the Commune looked more like a debating club than a capable government. From the very beginning, its leaders lost the military initiative, refraining from attacking Versailles. There was no unanimity in their ranks as to whether the Commune should be considered the government of only Paris or the whole of France. The measures taken by the Commune were limited in nature, boiling down to the establishment of workers 'control over the enterprises abandoned by the owners, and the resettlement of poor families from workers' quarters into the empty apartments of aristocrats and bourgeoisie.

Troops loyal to the government were drawn to Versailles, the Prussian army, which continued to blockade Paris, let them through their positions to the city. Having burst into the city after stubborn battles, the Versaillese achieved victory. The defenders of the Commune were shot without trial, and on May 28, 1871, the fighting in Paris ended.

And so ... briefly about the main thing)) here:

Reunification of Italy:

1861 - Italian reunification around the Savoy dynasty.

By the second half of the 19th century, a significant part of Italy was part of the Austrian Habsburg Empire.

The most developed state is Sardinia.

Prime Minister of Sardinia Count C. Cavour, an adherent liberal. views, believed that favorable for the unification of the country under the auspices of Piedmont. conv.

Consolidation progress:

1) During the Crimea. During the war, Sardinia sided with England and France, sending troops to the Crimea. For this help, Cavour hoped for the assistance of France in the reunification of Italy (+ in 1858 an agreement was signed on the transfer of Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for training in the war against Austria, which controlled most of northern Italy);

2) In the war that began in 1859 (Austro-Italian-French war), Parma created constituent assemblies, which decided to unite with Sardinia;

3) France made peace with Austria (having betrayed Italy + some lands, promised to Italy, remained with Austria, etc.);

4) It provoked the rise of the patriot. movement in Italy;

5) In 1860, an uprising began in Sicily (Kingdom of Naples). The volunteer corps, led by D. Garibaldi, opposed the Bourbons, who ruled in the south of the country;

6) The overthrow of the Bourbons;

7) In 1861, the 1st general Italian. parliament proclaimed. voxcoed-e of the country and the creation of the kingdom of Italy, headed by a cat. became King of Piedmont Victor-Emmanuel.

The composition is new. the kingdom did not include Venice and the Roman region, which remained an ecclesiastical state under the rule of the Pope.

Further the union of Italy is associated with the struggle of Prussia for the union of Germany (Italy sided with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Italy received Venice).

Unification of Germany:

1871 - the unification of Germany (the creation of a federal state around the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire of several dozen independent states with a German population, Austria and Luxembourg were not included in Prussia).

The unification of Germany is traditionally considered. as watered. percent throughout 1864-70, during the cat. Prussia fought a number of wars. campaigns against Denmark, Austria and France.

Conducted by Otto von Bismarck.

Uniting Germany - a cut of the Franco-Prussian War.

1870-71 - Franco-Prussian War.

Franco-Prussian War:

1) The reason for the war was the desire of Prussia to unite other countries under its leadership. Germany, France resisted this;

2) The reason for the war was the Emm dispatch (claims to the Spanish throne, which were put forward by a relative of Wilhelm of Prussia, Leopold Hohenzollern. Napoleon demanded that this refusal was approved by Wilhelm himself);

3) July 14, 1870 Napoleon lll declared war on Prussia (Bismarck achieved his goal: in the eyes of other powers, France looked like an attacking party);

4) Prussia with myself. she won the beginning of the war (for example, in the fall of 1870 Napoleon lll was taken prisoner);

5) 28 jan. 1871 - the conclusion of a truce, conventional cat. dictated by Prussia (Paris paid an indemnity, its forts and artillery were transferred to the Prussian troops).

The results of F.-P. wars:

1) the South Germans supported Prussia throughout the war, and after the victory of Prussia over France, the idea of ​​German unity was revived, and then put into practice;

2) the rise of the nat. self-consciousness in Germany;

3) After the victory at Sedan, the South German states began negotiations with Prussia on joining the North German Confederation;

4) Then there was another series of accessions to Prussia;

5) On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, at the suggestion of the Chancellor of the North German Confederation, Bismarck, renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire;

6) On January 18, 1871, in the Palace of Versailles near Paris, Bismarck, in the presence of German princes, read the text of the proclamation of the Prussian king by the German emperor.

Polit. persons:

1) 25 states had different rights and unequal influence within the empire.

2) department. destiny. the monarchs kept their selves in place. level, had the influence of h / appointing representatives with the right of veto to the top. chamber of the German parliament.

Elections to the lower house (Reichstag) were held according to the general principle. Equal. elected rights for men;

3) democrat. the nature of the elections to the Reichstag is not consistent. possible-m ness. classes to influence the management of the state; 4) real power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor.

Question number 33

Similar information.

The defeat of France with the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was accomplished unusually quickly. Three German armies, led by himself William I with Bismarck, Moltke and Minister of War Roon constantly with them, they marched on France, not allowing her army, led by Napoleon III, to invade Germany. Already in early August, the Germans triumphantly entered Alsace and Lorraine, followed by a revolutionary ferment in Paris.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871: Battle of Mars-la-Tour on August 16, 1870. Painter P. J. Jeannot, 1886

Under the influence of displeasure - both among the people and in the army - with the defeats suffered by individual units of the French army, Napoleon III resigned from the main command in the Franco-Prussian war and handed it over to Marshal Bazin. They had to retreat, but nothing was prepared for the retreat, and Bazin was left with one thing - to lock himself in Metz, which was immediately surrounded by the enemy. Another French army under the command of a marshal McMahon she was headed towards Metz, but the Germans blocked her way, pushed her back to the north and surrounded her on all sides under Sedan. Here on September 2, the main catastrophe of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 took place - the surrender of the French army of more than 80 thousand people and the surrender of Napoleon III himself. At about this time, Bazin's attempt to break through to connect with MacMahon was repelled, and Bazin was finally locked up in Metz.

Franco-Prussian War. Battle of Sedan. 1870

Battle of sedan decided the outcome of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 and became a fatal blow for the second French empire. Napoleon III did not feel safe in his own army, went in a carriage to look for the Prussian king, but met with Bismarck and Moltke, and then with Wilhelm I. At their meeting, the reasons for the Franco-Prussian war were discussed, and the captive emperor made excuses that to start a war, which he himself did not want, made him public opinion in France. "But this public opinion," the Prussian king objected, "was created by your Majesty's ministers."

Captured Napoleon III talks with Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan

The news of the sedan catastrophe came to Paris the next day, and on the 4th it happened revolution... In the morning, crowds of people walked along the Parisian streets, shouting about the deposition of Napoleon, and in the middle of the day people filled the building of the legislative building. The meeting was interrupted, and the Parisian deputies, having gathered in the town hall, proclaimed a republic ( Third republic) and organized under the chairmanship of General Trochu "government of national defense". It included the famous opponents of Napoleon III: a Jew who took over internal affairs, and the journalist Rochefort, who had just been released from prison. This government was not averse to ending the Franco-Prussian war and concluding peace, but Bismarck demanded the concession of Alsace and the German part of Lorraine. "Not a single inch of our land, not a single stone of our fortresses," Jules Favre, a member of the French government, in charge of foreign affairs, decisively declared in response to this demand.

The "government of national defense" sent on September 12th for help to the foreign courts of Thiers, but his mission was unsuccessful, and on September 19, 1870, exactly two months after the declaration of war, the Germans had already laid siege to Paris. At the end of September 1870 followed by the surrender of Strasbourg, besieged at the beginning of hostilities, at the end of October Bazin was forced to surrender Metz to the Germans with an army of 173,000 by famine. (Public opinion biasedly accused the Marshal of treason.) Now in German captivity there were two French armies, in which there were about 250 thousand people - something unheard of in all military history - and German troops from Strasbourg and Metz could move further into the interior of France. Sedan, Strasbourg and Metz reserves during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 went to the Germans, like everything that was still found by the Germans in other fortresses, which later surrendered one after another.

Franco-Prussian War. Map. The dotted line denotes the border of the territory that went to Germany according to the Frankfurt Peace

On September 19, as has been said, the siege of Paris began. Back in the forties, in view of the expected war with the Germans, the city was, on the initiative of Thiers, fortified by a rampart and a moat 34 versts long and a number of forts at some distance from Paris, the line of which was 66 versts. When the enemy attacked Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, 60-70 thousand regular troops were collected, a large number of food supplies, as well as military supplies, etc. were brought. For the Germans it was a difficult task to surround Paris with its population exceeding 2 million souls to cut off him and his forts from all communication with the rest of the world. The headquarters of the German army is located in Versailles, the famous residence of the last three French kings of the old monarchy.

Siege of paris, which lasted during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 19 weeks without one day (4 and a half months) in terms of the mass of the inhabitants of the besieged city and the mass of the besieging troops was something unprecedented in world history. In the end, food supplies were not enough, and they had to eat dogs, rats, etc. In addition to hunger, the Parisians suffered from the winter cold. To top it off, in January 1871, when the Prussians brought heavy siege artillery to Paris, the city was bombarded for three weeks. Communication with the outside world was maintained only by carrier pigeons. Before the start of the siege, three members of the government of national defense retired to Tours to organize the defense of the country from there, and after the start of the siege, they were joined by Gambetta, who flew out of Paris in a balloon.

All attempts by the besieged to repel the Germans ended in extreme failure; In the city, dissatisfaction with General Trochu reigned, and even attempts were made to overthrow the government. Finally, on January 23, 1871, after a series of unsuccessful armistice negotiations in the Franco-Prussian War, Jules Favre went to Versailles to ask for peace. On January 28, 1971, he and Bismarck signed an act of surrender of Paris and an armistice for three weeks with the transfer of all external forts to the Germans, the issuance of weapons, the abandonment of the Parisian army in the city in the position of prisoners of war, the payment of 200 million francs of indemnity and the obligation to collect in Bordeaux in two weeks national assembly for the conclusion of peace.

Ten days before the surrender of Paris, on January 18, 1871, in one of the Versailles halls, the allied German sovereigns, on the formal initiative of the Bavarian king, proclaimed the Prussian king the German emperor. This was preceded in a month by the reception by Wilhelm I of a deputation from the North German Reichstag, asking him to accept a new title. It is curious that the deputation was headed by the same person (Simsov), who in 1849 offered the imperial crown to the late brother of Wilhelm I on behalf of the Frankfurt parliament. This was the end of the unification of Germany under Prussian domination.

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles, 1871. Painting by A. von Werner, 1885. In the center, at the steps of the throne - Bismarck in a white uniform. To his right, half-turned, Helmut von Moltke

During the siege of Paris, the "dictator of Tours", as Gambetta was nicknamed for his energy and authority, as now Minister of War, organized a massive militia from the remnants of the regular army and recruits (all men from 21 to 40 years old) and obtained weapons for him, secretly bought in England. Four armies were created, in which there were almost 600 thousand people, but the Germans defeated these untrained crowds thrown into battle by the French republicans one after another. With the continuation of the Franco-Prussian war, they still captured as many as thousands of soldiers and took cities on the other side of Paris, by the way, having captured Tours itself. In the power of the Prussians was the northeastern corner of France between Belgium and the Channel, and a large area southwest of Paris, and one of the hastily recruited Gambett armies, defeated and lost up to 15 thousand prisoners, was forced to go to Switzerland, where she was disarmed ... Despite all this, Gambetta resisted the conclusion of peace and with a proclamation to the people on January 31, he appealed to the patriotism of the French to wage the Franco-Prussian war to the last extreme.

Leon Michelle Gambetta. Painting by L. Bonn, 1875

In essence, however, the surrender of Paris decided the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Military operations in 1870-71 lasted 180 days, during which the French troops were knocked out killed, wounded, taken prisoner, disarmed in Paris and transferred to Swiss territory 800 thousand people - again something that they could not have imagined before.

In early February, elections to the National Assembly took place throughout France, without any interference from the Germans, which then opened its sessions on February 12 in Bordeaux. The national defense government resigned, and Thiers became the chief executive, who was entrusted with negotiating peace. The preliminary treaty that ended the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 took place at Versailles on February 26. On March 1, 1871, it was adopted by the National Assembly (546 votes to 107), and on May 20 it was finally signed in Frankfurt am Main. By Frankfurt Peace 1871 France lost Alsace and a significant part of Lorraine with a population of 1.5 million, two-thirds German, one-third French, pledged to pay 5 billion francs and had to undergo German occupation east of Paris before payment of an indemnity. Germany released French prisoners of war immediately, and at that moment there were more than 400 thousand of them.

After the Austro-Prussian-Italian War of 1866, Prussia sought to unite all the German lands under its rule and to weaken France. France did not want a strong political enemy to appear on its borders, so a war between them was inevitable.

Background and reason for war

Prussia strengthened significantly in the 19th century and became one of the leading countries on the continent. Having secured an alliance with Russia, Prussia began to unite the German lands without fear of a major war.

In 1868, a relative of the Prussian king, Leopold Hohenzollern, was a contender for the Spanish throne. France, not wanting to see him on the throne, put forward a demand to William to withdraw Leopold's candidacy. King William, not wanting war, compromised and satisfied their demands. France put forward tougher conditions, demanding forever Leopold to give up a possible crown, provoking a war. The answer to this demand was not given by Wilhelm, but by Chancellor O. von Bismarck, and, moreover, quite harsh. In response to this, a violent reaction followed in Paris from the French deputies, who instantly voted for war with Prussia, the date of which was June 19, 1870.

Course Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871

Already in the first days of the war, three German armies under the command of Wilhelm I, with the support of Otto von Bismarck and Minister of War Roon, crossed into France, preventing them from starting a war on German territory. Already during the occupation of Alsace and Lorraine by the Germans, revolutionary ferment began in Paris.

Under the influence of the public, Napoleon III had to resign as commander-in-chief, handing them over to Marshal Bazin. At Metz, Bazin's army was surrounded by the Germans, and the way was blocked for the second army that was marching to her aid.

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In the battle of Sedan on September 2, 1870, the main catastrophe of the French army occurred: 80 thousand soldiers surrendered and Napoleon III himself was taken prisoner.

Rice. 1. Battle of Sedan 1870.

General MacMahon's attempt to break through to Metz to Bazin was repelled by German troops and the latter remained completely surrounded by the enemy. The defeat at Sedan became known in Paris, and on September 4 there was a revolution. Crowds of people walked around the capital, demanding the abdication of the French emperor, the Parisian deputies announced the proclamation of the Third Republic.

Rice. 2. Captured Napoleon III talks with Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan.

The formed government was ready to make peace with Prussia, but Bismarck demanded Alsace and Lorraine from France, to which he received a decisive refusal from Jules Favre, who was in charge of foreign policy in the new government.

Two months after the start of the war, the Germans began the siege of Paris. It began on September 19, 1870. At the end of September 1870, Strasbourg fell, and the famine that began in Metz forced Bazin to surrender to the German army.

Interesting: By October 1870, there were two French armies in German captivity, a total of about 250 thousand people.

In the meantime, the siege of Paris lasted for 19 weeks. The headquarters of the German command was located in Versailles. There were about 60-70 thousand soldiers in the city, but the small amount of supplies gave rise to a terrible famine. In January 1871, the Germans brought up siege artillery to the city and began shelling. Attempts to throw off the siege were unsuccessful; dissatisfaction with the command grew among the two million population of Paris.

On January 18, 1871, in one of the Versailles halls, the King of Prussia, in the presence of the sovereigns of other principalities, was proclaimed emperor of Germany.

Rice. 3. Map of the Franco-Prussian War.

On January 23, 1871, Jules Favre went to Versailles to ask for peace. On January 28, an act of surrender of Paris and an armistice for three weeks was signed.

A preliminary peace treaty was concluded on February 26, and the final one was signed on May 20 in Frankfurt am Main. As a result, France lost Alsace, Lorraine and paid 5 billion francs in indemnity.

The result of the Franco-Prussian war was the unification of Germany. The victory in this war was of great importance, making Germany the strongest country in Europe.

What have we learned?

In an article on history (grade 8), we talked briefly about the Franco-Prussian war. It should be noted that it turned into a disaster for the ambitious France, which lost it on all counts. Germany has shown itself to be a powerful modern power, which is the main military and economic force in Europe.

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The Encyclopedia of Richard Ernest and Trevor Nevitt Dupuis is a comprehensive reference book showing the evolution of the art of war from Antiquity to the present day. In one volume, a wealth of material is collected and systematized: a colossal volume of archival documents, rare maps, summaries of statistical data, excerpts from scientific works and detailed descriptions of the greatest battles.

For the convenience of using the encyclopedia, the history of mankind is conditionally divided into twenty-two chapters, each of which is devoted to a time period from the 4th millennium BC to the end of the 20th century. The essays preceding the chapters contain information about the principles of tactics and strategy of a particular period, the characteristics of weapons, the development of military-theoretical thought and the outstanding military leaders of the era. The encyclopedia contains two indexes: the names mentioned in the text, as well as wars and significant armed conflicts. All this will help the reader to recreate and perceive the historical canvas as a whole, to understand the reasons for this or that war, to trace its course and evaluate the actions of the commanders.

Franco-Prussian War

1870-1871

Bismarck's diplomatic unification of the German states around Prussia and the creation of a broad anti-French coalition came as a surprise to Napoleon III. An attempt by Prussia to elevate Prince of Hohenzollern to the Spanish throne threatened France with a war on two fronts. Napoleon, mistakenly considering the French army invincible, decided to accelerate the inevitable (in his opinion) the onset of war. Bismarck's diplomacy contributed to this hasty decision.

1870, July, 15. France declares war. This is followed by a hasty mobilization of the armies of both countries. The mobilization and concentration of troops in Germany is proceeding in an orderly manner, according to a clear plan, with full use of the railway communication for the transfer of troops. Mobilization in France is haphazard and incomplete.

1870, July, 31. The concentration of the Prussian troops and their plan of military operations. Three well-equipped German armies totaling 475,000 are concentrated on the border along the Rhine. The first, 85,000-strong army under the command of General Karl F. von Steinmetz, is located between Trier and Saarbrücken; the second, 210 thousandth, under the command of Prince Friedrich-Karl, is stationed between Bingen and Mannheim; the third, 180 thousandth, under the command of Crown Prince Friedrich-Wilhelm, is located between Landau and Germersheim. Nominally, the armies are under the command of King William I, but in fact they are commanded by General Moltke and his brilliant General Staff. Prussian intelligence finds out the complete plan of the French army's military operations. The goal of the campaign is to defeat the French army in a general battle, followed by the capture of Paris.

1870, July, 31. Concentration of French troops and their plan of military operations. In contrast to the Prussian army, the 114,000-strong French army, consisting of eight separate corps, is deployed along the border - from Thionville to Strasbourg - and is deployed in echelons based on the Metz - Nancy - Belfort fortress chain. Troop transport is poorly organized, and supplies are even worse; parts are understaffed. The headquarters of Napoleon III and his mediocre minister of war, Marshal Edmond Leboeuf, is located in Metz. The only plan of the campaign is the popular cry "To Berlin!" There is no French military intelligence. The command acts like a fog. Napoleon gives the order for a general offensive.

1870, August, 2. Battle of Saarbrücken. The skirmish between units of the 1st German army and the 2nd French corps becomes an alarm signal for the French, notifying that the enemy is nearby. Napoleon belatedly formed two armies: Alsatian (from three southern corps under the command of Marshal McMahon) and Lorraine (from five northern corps under the command of Marshal Ashile F. Bazin). There is no single headquarters; both commanders make decisions independently, relying on corps headquarters.

1870, August, 4. Battle of Weissenburg. Early in the morning on the River Leuter, the Crown Prince's army, advancing in four columns, takes by surprise and defeats the advance division of McMahon's corps. The other two French corps had not yet approached; one division comes up during the day. After a fierce battle with superior enemy forces, the losses of the French amounted to 1,600 killed and wounded and 700 prisoners; losses of the Germans -1550. McMahon retreats and concentrates troops on the forested plateau, deploying positions to the river.

1870, August, 6. Battle of Fröschwiller (Wörth). The right flank of MacMahon beats off German reconnaissance in force. The crown prince regroups, strikes simultaneously on both flanks of McMahon and concentrates the main forces against the enemy's right flank, directing 150 cannons at him. The French cavalry launched several suicidal counterattacks, but were unable to stop the advance. Under cover of reserve artillery, McMahon retreats to Fröschwiller. Here he holds until nightfall, and then freely moves to Chalon-am-Marne (August, 7-14). The German army of 125,000 with 312 guns loses a total of 8,200 killed and wounded and 1,373 missing. The French 46.5 thousand with 119 guns loses 10,760 killed and wounded and 6,200 prisoners. The defense in the region of the Vosges mountains has been broken, the way to Paris is open. The Crown Prince's army is methodically advancing towards the Meuse River (Meuse). The tactical pattern of operations is being clarified. French rifles of the Chaspo system are superior to needle muskets of the Prussians in accuracy and amount of fire, but thanks to the erroneous replacement of cannons with mitrailleuses (heavy machine guns), which make up about one quarter of all French artillery, the latter is significantly inferior to the Prussian.

1870, August, 6. Battle of Spichern. The 1st and 2nd German armies are advancing on Lorraine. Bazin's army is dispersed into three parts that have no connection with each other. The second French corps of General Charles Auguste Frossard, repelling the attacks of Steinmetz and the corps of the army of Friedrich-Karl, holds the Spichern hill (southeast of Saarbrücken) for a whole day until there is a threat of its encirclement from both flanks. No help comes from Bazin. The French 30-thousandth corps loses 1,982 people killed and wounded, 1,096 missing. The 45-thousandth German corps loses 4,491 killed and wounded and 372 missing. The German army, drained of losses, does not pursue the retreating French.

1870, August, 6-15. German offensive. Moltke gives the order to the 3rd Army to pursue the retreating MacMahon, and he himself, with the 1st and 2nd armies, rushes after Bazin on the most extensive sector of the front. The mobility of the German vanguard gives the French no respite. The Prussians wedge themselves between the two French armies and threaten to cut off Bazin.

1870, August, 12. Napoleon resigns as commander-in-chief. Shocked by the defeats of the French army, Napoleon resigns from the post of commander in chief and goes to the fortress of Verdun. Leboeuf was removed, replaced by General Charles G.M. Cousin Montauban, Count of Palicao. Bazin, taking command of the reorganized Rhine army, retreats to the fortress of Metz, while MacMahon regroups his troops at Chalon.

1870, August, 15. Battle of Borin. The first Prussian army forces Bazin to retreat across the Moselle. Bazin hopes to reach Verdun and link up with McMahon's army. But the Second German Army cuts off his escape route by forcing the river at Pont-a-Monsoon. In the hope of breaking through, Bazin concentrates his troops between Orna and Moselle, turning south and leaving Metz on his left flank.

Mitralese

1870, August, 16. Battles at Mar-la-Tour, Vionville and Resonville. At dawn, Frederick Karl, moving north from Verdun towards Metz, encounters French troops. Its head corps attacks; the rest rush forward at the sound of cannon fire. The attack of the French cavalry was repulsed with heavy losses for the latter. The Germans attack in their favorite way: deliver a concentrated blow, then echelon after echelon bring in new units into the battle before the climax of the battle. Small cavalry skirmishes develop into a grand battle, and then into hand-to-hand combat, capturing infantry positions. The battle continues to the point of complete exhaustion on both sides. Ultimately, Friedrich-Karl goes over to the attack along the entire front and drives the enemy back to Rezonville. A series of battles merges into one protracted battle, the most difficult in the entire war. The losses of the Germans are 17 thousand, the French -16 thousand. The next day, Bazin, having lost hope of a breakthrough, withdraws to Metz, deploys an army of 115 thousand across the flank and takes a new position 10 km long with a front to the west, to the ridge between the Moselle and Ornoy. The main forces of German troops numbering 200 thousand people, finding themselves between the army of Bazin and Paris, begin an offensive, leaving one reinforced corps east of Metz.

1870, August, 18. Battle of Gravelotte - Saint-Privat. Moltke, personally involved in the operation, attacks Bazin, throwing the main forces of his Second Army on the enemy's left flank. The fortified village of Saint-Privat-la-Montaigne becomes the key point of the battle. Frederick Karl throws the Prussian Guard to storm the village (which is defended by Marshal Canrober's Sixth Corps). From early morning until dusk, the 23,000th corps of Canrober heroically repel the onslaught of the 100,000th German army. Meanwhile, Bazin does not respond in any way to his requests to send reinforcements. Then the Saxon corps enters Roncourt (north of Saint-Privat), surrounds the flank of the French and threatens their rear. After a battle for each village house, Canrober retreats to Metz with the remains of the corps. Meanwhile, another battle is being fought on the right flank of the Germans. Two German corps are sprawled marching along the road leading east of Gravelot. Entering the gorge, they fall into the trap of the French. Attempts to break through are unsuccessful; panic begins. Indiscriminate crowds of soldiers retreat west across Gravelot. The brilliant counterattack of the French was stopped only thanks to the timely artillery of Prince Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and the personal leadership of Moltke, who brought up fresh troops and prevented the complete defeat of the retreating German army. At the end of the night, Moltke receives a message about the victory at Saint-Privy. If Bazin had counterattacked in time, being in the previous disposition, he would have had the opportunity to break through the Prussian orders. However, he remains inactive, completely losing contact with the corps commanders. Moltke, who was awaiting a French counterattack, which never took place, surrounds the enemy positions along the entire perimeter.

1870, August, 21-18. MacMahon's offensive. Meanwhile, MacMahon received a categorical order from the government to leave Chalon to help Bazin with an army of 120,000 and 393 guns. All his actions are widely covered by the French press. At his headquarters is the Emperor Napoleon III himself. McMahon unwisely chooses the northern route, which then requires a turn to the east. Moltke accepts the challenge. While the 1st German Army and part of the 2nd under the command of Friedrich-Karl besiege Metz, the rest of the 2nd Army, called Meuse, under the command of the Saxon Crown Prince Albert, moves west to join the 3rd Army of Friedrich-Wilhelm. , which quickly forces the Argonne Forest, blocking the path of McMahon.

1870, August, 29-31. Battles on the Meuse. McMahon moves part of his army across the Meuse at Dusi. The Prussian Meuse army, advancing on both banks of the river, after fierce battles at Noir (August 29) and Beaumont (August 30), drives the French north to Sedan. Another skirmish at Bazey (August 31), in which MacMahon is wounded, drives the French into a bend in the river near Sedan. And this time the Prussians wedge themselves between the French army and Sedan. The Crown Prince, arriving from the southeast via Wadlincourt and Donchery on the left bank of the Meuse, crosses the river via pontoon bridges and moves inland to the north of Sedan, completing the flanking bypass of the French army. Meanwhile, the army of Friedrich-Karl repels Bazin's sluggish attempts to break out of Metz (August 31).

1870, September, 1. Battle of Sedan. General Auguste Ducros, who took command instead of MacMahon, finds himself surrounded by Moltke's 200,000-strong army, pushing him from the south, west and east; the rear of Ducros is deployed to the Belgian border. The French cavalry attempting to break through was scattered by the fire of the Prussian infantry; meanwhile, 426 German guns, located in a semi-ring on the heights in the vicinity of Sedan, bombarded the French positions throughout the day. The attack of the German cavalry was repulsed by the fire of the French machine guns (mitrailleuse). Unsuccessful in his attempt to break through to the northeast, Ducros attempts to attack southward in the afternoon, but is unsuccessful. By five o'clock in the afternoon, it was all over; the French army is accumulating in the city and fortress under the hurricane fire of the enemy. General Emmanuel F. de Wimpffen, who took command from Ducros, tries to convince Napoleon to personally lead the last attack, but he refuses to sacrifice soldiers, goes out with a white flag and surrenders to the King of Prussia as a private person. Then Wimpffen with the remnants of the army (83 thousand soldiers and 449 guns) capitulates. The losses of the French are 17 thousand, the Germans -9 thousand.

1870, September. The offensive of the Germans on Paris. The war seemed to be over. Half of the French army is in captivity, the rest are blockaded in Metz. The last strongholds of the French army are the fortresses located along the eastern border, of which the most important are Strasbourg, Verdun and Belfort. The German army is constantly replenished with reserves. While the 1st and 2nd armies are increasingly tightening the iron ring around Bazin in Metz, the 3rd and Meuse armies are moving towards Paris. However, there is an unprecedented patriotic upsurge in France.

1870, September, 4. Third republic. In Paris, a popular uprising breaks out, overthrowing the empire. A provisional government is formed, the ideological leader of which is Leon Gambetta, and the president and military governor of Paris - General Louis Jules Trochu. Trochu strengthens Paris and hastily recruits an army of 120,000 (from veterans, reservists and 20,000 marines), an 80,000 corps of the so-called Flying Guard (of young people under 30) and a 300,000 National Guard (extremely excitable and anarchist attuned crowd of people from 30 to 50 years old).

1870, September, 19. Beginning of the siege of Paris. Moltke is not going to destroy his soldiers, sending them to storm two belts of strong fortifications. The Germans carefully build their fortifications around the city. King William of Prussia moves his headquarters to Versailles. Moltke is about to starve the gigantic city to death, but to his amazement he discovers that his lines of communication are constantly attacked. frantiers(partisans), and a new French army is being formed in the Loire Valley. Gambetta, who escaped from the capital in a balloon (the only means of communication with the outside world), organizes a popular resistance with a center in Tours (October 11), where the provisional government functions. Moltke is torn to pieces, commanding two sieges, a field action and a fight against partisans along the entire line of communication, which greatly reduces the effectiveness of the German war machine.

Cannon Krupp

1870, October, 27. The fall of Metz. The 173,000-strong French army of Bazin, after a 54-day siege, capitulates more because of the commander's indecision and hunger than because of military action. After the end of the war, Bazin is tried by a tribunal, found guilty of treason and imprisoned.

1870, October - December. French initiative. Moltke immediately directs the veterans freed after the siege of Metz in a large-scale campaign against the untrained French army in the Loire-Sarthe valley, which has made several daring but unsuccessful attempts to break through to besieged Paris. The fighting continues throughout the winter; German communications are constantly being attacked by partisans.

1870, October - December. Military operations around Paris. Despite the famine in besieged Paris, Trochu's troops make sorties from time to time. The defense of Paris is complicated by the revolt of the soldiers of the National Guard (October 31). Two major sorties with the aim of breaking the siege (November 29-30 and December 21) start off successfully, but end in nothing.

1870, November, 9. Battle of Culmje. The victory of the French troops over the Bavarian corps forces the Germans to leave Orleans, but the further offensive of the French drowns after the introduction of the Prussian reserves.

1870, December, 2-4. Battle of Orleans. A two-day fierce battle between the French army of the Loire under the command of General Louis J.B. d'Oray de Paladin and the army of Frederick Karl ends with the victory of the Prussians and the recapture of Orleans. Meanwhile, General Charles D.S. Bourbaki hurries east to the besieged Belfort, and General Antoine F.A. Chanzi with the remnants of the Loire army is engaged in protracted battles with significantly superior enemy forces.

1871, January. Campaign in the North. General Louis L.K. Faderb restrains German attempts to pacify northern France in the battle of Alluet (December 23). Then, in the long battle at Bopom (January, 2-3), he defeats the corps of General August Karl von Goeben, but von Goeben takes revenge at the battle of Saint-Quentin (January, 19). Faderb retreats in an orderly manner and destroys the pursuing vanguard. He quickly regroups his troops and prepares for a new offensive. This worries the German command, already taken by surprise by the unexpected successes of the resistance in the remote provinces.

1871, January, 10-12. Battle of Le Mans. In the Loire Valley, the Germans are fighting off a desperate attack from Chanzy. The insecurity of the troops forces Chanzy to retreat west, but not to lose the intention to launch a new offensive on the Loire.

1871, January, 15-17. Battle of Belfort. Far to the east, Belfort remains the last strong French fortress to be resisted by the garrison. Bourbaki with a completely unprepared 150-thousandth army is advancing on the 60-thousandth corps of General Karl Wilhelm F.A.L. Werder Bremen to distract him from the siege of Belfort and force him to defend himself. He attacks the position of Werder Bremen on the Lisena River, within cannon-shot distance from the fortress. Due to the mediocrity of Bourbaki and the incompetence of his assistant Giuseppe Garibaldi (this time fighting for the independence of France), after a three-day fierce battle, the French are defeated. The Germans lose 1,900 soldiers, the French more than 6 thousand. Bourbaki makes an unsuccessful suicide attempt, is removed from command and replaced by General Justin Cleanshan. With the arrival of the German reserve army under the command of General Edwin von Manteuffel, Klenschan, whose rear faces the Swiss border, finds itself sandwiched between the two armies. With an army of 83,000, he crosses the Swiss border at Pontarlier, where he is warmly welcomed (February 1).

1871, January, 26. Armistice in Paris. The third and final attempt by the Paris garrison to break the siege ends in complete defeat when the National Guard begins to treacherously shoot their comrades in the back (January 19). The hopes of the defenders of Paris for liberation are crumbling, people are starving. An armistice is concluded at Trochu's proposal.

1871, January, 28. Versailles Convention; surrender of Paris. Regular units of the Parisian garrison and the flying guard are declared prisoners of war; forts in the vicinity of Paris are occupied by the Prussians. At the request of the French (as it turns out later, unreasonable), the terms of the peace agreement do not include the disarmament of the National Guard, which, in theory, should perform police functions and maintain order in the city. The winners enter Paris in triumph (March 1).

1871, January - February. Undefeated Belfort. The commandant of the fortress, Colonel Pierre M. P. A. Danfer-Rochereau, has been holding the defense since November 3, 1870. As a military engineer, he served in the garrison of this ancient fortress for six years. Using existing structures, he strengthens the outer line of defense and successfully defends Belfort with a 17.6 thousand garrison, mainly consisting of the Flying and National Guard. The Germans manage to break through the outer line of the fortifications only at the end of January, but at the same time they find themselves under fire from the citadel's batteries and move extremely slowly. Danfer-Rochereau surrenders the fortress only on the categorical order of the French General Assembly in Bordeaux (February 15). The garrison leaves with military honors - with weapons, artillery and banners. For 105 days of the siege, the French lose 4,800 people (of which 336 civilians died during the shelling). German losses amount to 2 thousand. The defense of Belfort becomes a heroic event in the history of the French army.

1871, May, 10. Peace of Frankfurt. France gives Germany Alsace and North-East Lorraine, and pays an indemnity of 5 billion francs (billion dollars). The German occupation authorities remain in France until the indemnity is paid.