Kuzansky Nikolai: philosophy in brief and biography. The main ideas of the philosophy of Nikolai Kuzansky briefly. According to most historians of philosophy, F. Bacon was the ancestor of the generally accepted systems of thinking Bacon attributed to ghosts
4. Philosophy of Renaissance and Modern Times
1. The most famous work of Nikolai Kuzansky is called:
a) "About the cause, the beginning and the one";
b) "On the dignity and growth of sciences";
* c) "On scientific ignorance";
d) "On the infinity of the Universe and the worlds";
d) "On the greatness of the soul."
2. In his theory of knowledge, F. Bacon adhered to the concept:
a) absolute truth;
b) relative truth;
c) unattainable truth;
d) conventional truth;
*e) dual truth.
3. According to most historians of philosophy, F. Bacon was the ancestor of the European:
a) idealism and stoicism;
b) objectivism and skepticism;
* c) empiricism and materialism;
d) rationalism;
d) panmathematics.
4. The main working method of F. Bacon is:
a) analysis;
b) synthesis;
c) deduction;
* d) induction;
d) dialectics.
5. Bacon attributed the generally accepted systems of thought (syllogistics and scholasticism) to ghosts (idols):
a) kind;
b) caves;
c) the market;
* d) theater.
6. The initial principle of Descartes's philosophizing:
* a) doubt;
b) dialectics;
c) intuition;
d) insight;
d) logic.
7. Before declaring: "I think, therefore I am," Descartes stated:
a) "I believe because it is absurd";
* b) “everything should be doubted”;
c) "love moves the sun and the stars";
d) "knowledge - force";
d) "Know yourself".
8. According to Descartes, the substance is extended and the substance is spiritual:
a) are closely related;
* b) exist independently of each other;
c) are opposites and are constantly fighting among themselves;
d) exist separately, and the existence of one excludes the simultaneous existence of the other;
d) are an illusion of the psyche.
a) one substance - matter;
b) one substance with two attributes: time and space;
c) one substance with two attributes: thinking and extension;
* d) two independent substances - thinking and extension;
d) only the facts of sensory perception.
10. The main attribute of matter, according to Descartes, is:
a) divisibility;
* b) extent (prevalence);
c) eternity;
d) variability;
d) energy.
11. Descartes considered the main method of obtaining true and practically useful facts:
a) contemplative analysis;
b) empirical induction;
* c) rational deduction;
d) speculative synthesis;
d) dialectical method.
12. A number of philosophical directions developing the ideas of Descartes are called in the history of philosophy:
* a) Cartesianism;
b) sensationalism;
c) realism;
d) deism;
d) pragmatism.
13. Spinoza used an unusual method of presentation in his Ethics:
a) logical;
b) empirical;
* c) geometric;
d) semantic;
d) dialectical.
14. The attributes of substance (nature), according to Spinoza, are:
a) external reason;
b) many finite things;
* c) thinking and stretching;
d) impact and communication;
d) energy and information.
15. Based on the concept of the physical unity of the universe, J. Bruno expressed the thought:
a) the cosmos is infinity, as an eternal uncreated being (god);
b) the infinity of the cosmos is a divine attribute, since the world was created by an infinite god;
* c) space is infinite, but surrounded by empty space (god);
d) space - empty space, surrounds God as its core;
d) the cosmos was created by God and is finite, God himself is infinite and constantly creates new worlds.
16. Philosophy of nature J. Bruno:
a) deism;
b) creationism;
* c) pantheism;
d) dualism;
d) materialism.
17. In the form of Leviathan, he considered the state:
a) Spinoza;
* b) Hobbes;
c) Descartes;
d) Bacon;
e) Nikolai Kuzansky.
18. According to Locke, the basis of all knowledge is:
* a) sensation;
b) idea;
c) thought;
d) word;
e) intuition.
19. This philosopher first divided power into three types (judicial, legislative and executive):
a) Spinoza;
* b) Locke;
c) Descartes;
d) Bacon;
e) Nikolai Kuzansky.
20. The philosophy of the Enlightenment as a whole is inherent in:
* a) belief in human reason, knowledge and social progress;
b) exceptional religiosity;
c) theocentrism;
d) exceptional interest in the problems of cognition.
21. This philosopher directly identified a person with a machine:
a) Spinoza;
b) Locke;
* c) Lametri;
d) Bacon;
e) Nikolai Kuzansky.
22. Voltaire believed that religion arose when they met:
a) man and god;
b) god and devil;
c) god and prophet;
* d) a swindler and a fool.
23. The ideological leader, organizer and compiler of the first "Encyclopedia" was:
a) Spinoza;
* b) Diderot;
c) La Mettrie;
d) Bacon;
e) Nikolai Kuzansky.
24. Rousseau believed that the development of culture forms a person's needs:
a) natural;
* b) artificial;
c) material;
d) spiritual;
e) social.
25. Establish the correspondence of the philosopher to the philosophical direction:
and in d 1 . empiricism; a) Bacon;
b d 2. rationalism; b) Descartes;
c) Locke;
d) Hobbes;
e) Spinoza.
26. Establish the sequence of the emergence of philosophical works:
1a) "On scientific ignorance" Nikolai Kuzansky;
5b) "On the social contract" by Russo;
2c) "On the infinity of the Universe and the worlds" by Bruno;
4d) "Ethics" by Spinoza;
3d) "New Atlantis" Bacon.
27. Establish the correspondence of a philosophical treatise to a particular philosopher:
v 1 . "On learned ignorance" a) Bacon;
d 2. "On the social contract" b) Descartes;
b3. "Discourse on the method" c) Nikolay Kuzansky;
G 4 . Leviathan; d) Hobbes;
a5. "New Atlantis"; e) Rousseau.
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10. A Christian-religious understanding of history means:
a) history is a linear movement from the Fall to the day of judgment;11. Apologists in the II century. n. NS.:
b) defended, justified the Christian doctrine;
12. A new quality of a person discovered by medieval patristics:
13. Augustine makes the central object of philosophical reflection:
14. The basis of spiritual life in the concept of Augustine is:
15. The highest criterion of truth in the concept of Augustine:
c) revelation;
16. The task of medieval philosophy, from the point of view of the scholastics, was to:
c) find rational evidence of faith;
17. Scholasticism proclaimed a distinction between:
a) by faith and reason;
18. The subject of the dispute about universals was:
c) the real existence of general concepts;
19. In the debate about universals, the realists:
20. Nominalism, in its attack on the strict rationalization of religious dogma, thereby:
b) prepared the ground for the separation of theology from philosophy;
21. On the question of the relationship between philosophy and religion, Thomas Aquinas put forward the thesis that:
c) religion is not outside- and not anti-rational, it is super-rational;
22. Thomas Aquinas adhered to the concept:
d) on the superiority of faith over knowledge.
23. The doctrine of Thomas Aquinas and the whole religious and philosophical trend, created by him, is called:
b) Thomism;
24. In his reasoning about God, Thomas Aquinas:
b) recognized God as completely transcendental, unknowable;
25. Investigating the problems of the human soul, Thomas Aquinas proceeded from the fact that:
a) the soul is a pure form without matter, it is incorporeal;
26. This medieval thinker owns five of the most complete ways of proving the existence of God:
27. Establish the correspondence of the philosopher to the philosophical direction:
1.realism; d) Thomas Aquinas. b) Anselm of Canterbury; 2. nominalism; a) William of Ockham; c) John Roscelin;
28. Establish the sequence of the philosophers of the Middle Ages:
c) Philo of Alexandria; d) Tertullian. b) Bl. Augustine; a) Thomas Aquinas;
29. Establish the sequence of the emergence of philosophical works:
d) Origen's "On the Beginnings" a) "On the City of God" Bl. Augustine; c) "On the Divine Names" by Dionysius the Areopagite; b) "Sum of Theology" Thomas Aquinas;
30. Establish the correspondence of a philosophical treatise to a particular philosopher:
1. "About the city of God"; b) Bl. Augustine; 2. "Sum of Theology"; d) Thomas Aquinas. 3. "On divine names"; a) Dionysius the Areopagite; 4. "About the beginnings"; c) Origen;
(4 question) 4. Philosophy of the Renaissance and Modern Times
1. The most famous work of Nikolai Kuzansky is called:
c) "On scientific ignorance";
2. In his theory of knowledge, F. Bacon adhered to the concept:
e) dual truth.
3. According to most historians of philosophy, F. Bacon was the ancestor of the European:
c) empiricism and materialism;
4. The main working method of F. Bacon is:
d) induction;
5. The generally accepted systems of thought (syllogistics and scholasticism) Bacon attributed to ghosts (idols):
d) theater.
6. The initial principle of Descartes's philosophizing:
a) doubt;
7. Before declaring: "I think, therefore I am," Descartes stated:
b) “everything should be doubted”;
8. According to Descartes, the substance is extended and the substance is spiritual:
b) exist independently of each other;
d) two independent substances - thinking and extension;
10. The main attribute of matter, according to Descartes, is:
b) extent (prevalence);
11. Descartes considered the main method of obtaining true and practically useful facts:
c) rational deduction;
12. A number of philosophical directions developing the ideas of Descartes are called in the history of philosophy:
a) Cartesianism;
13. Spinoza used an unusual method of presentation in his Ethics:
c) geometric;
14. Attributes of substance (nature), according to Spinoza, are:
c) thinking and stretching;
15. Based on the concept of the physical unity of the universe, J. Bruno expressed the idea:
a) the cosmos is infinity, as an eternal uncreated being (god);
16. Philosophy of nature J. Bruno is:
c) pantheism;
17. In the form of Leviathan, he considered the state:
18. According to Locke, the basis of all knowledge is:
a) sensation;
19. This philosopher first divided power into three types (judicial, legislative and executive):
20. The philosophy of the Enlightenment as a whole is inherent in:
a) belief in human reason, knowledge and social progress;
21. This philosopher directly identified a person with a machine:
c) La Mettrie;
22. Voltaire believed that religion arose when they met:
d) a swindler and a fool.
23. The ideological leader, organizer and compiler of the first "Encyclopedia" was:
24. Rousseau believed that the development of culture forms a person's needs:
b) artificial;
25. Establish the correspondence of the philosopher to the philosophical direction:
1. empiricism; a) Bacon; c) Locke; d) Hobbes; 2. rationalism; b) Descartes; e) Spinoza.
26. Establish the sequence of the emergence of philosophical works:
a) "On scientific ignorance" Nikolai Kuzansky; c) "On the infinity of the Universe and the worlds" by Bruno; e) "New Atlantis" Bacon. d) "Ethics" by Spinoza; b) "On the social contract" by Russo;
27. Establish the correspondence of a philosophical treatise to a particular philosopher:
1. "About scientific ignorance"; c) Nikolay Kuzansky; 2. "On the social contract"; e) Russo. 3. "Discourse on the method"; b) Descartes; 4. "Leviathan"; d) Hobbes; 5. "New Atlantis"; a) Bacon;
(5 question) 5. German classical philosophy
1. In the philosophical work of I. Kant there are periods:a) subcritical and critical;
2. The philosophical treatise "Critique of Pure Reason" was written:
c) Kant;
3. The transcendental according to Kant is:
e) absolutely unknowable.
4. According to Kant, "a thing-in-itself" is:
c) the existing world, which is completely inaccessible to us and can never become the object of our knowledge;
5. In addition to the phenomena, Kant distinguishes:
a) the world of things in themselves;
6. According to Kant, an object and phenomenon in the world, given in perception, for a cognizing subject is:
b) a phenomenon;
a) space and time;
8. According to Kant's theory, time and space:
b) do not really exist, but necessarily precede sensory experience;
9. Kant substantiates the moral law, according to which a person is a "goal in himself", because:
d) a person must coordinate his autonomous motivation with the motivation of other people, considering them as a goal in himself;
10. The wording of Kant's categorical imperative reads: "Do so that the maxim of your behavior on the basis of your will can become ...":
c) general law;
11. According to Kant, the categorical imperative is:
e) an immutable moral requirement, a moral law.
12. According to Kant, the moral value of an act is the higher, the more it:
a) complies with the current law;
13. In his theory of aesthetic judgment, Kant was the first to characterize the aesthetically pleasing, in terms of:
d) disinterest;
14. Hegel's philosophy is:
b) absolute objective idealism;
15. Dialectics in philosophical system Hegel:
a) speculative idealistic;
16. According to Hegel, the fundamental principle of all that exists is:
c) the absolute idea (world spirit);
17. In Hegel's system, world development is:
a) development of the spirit (absolute idea);
18. In the Science of Logic, Hegel substantiates the thesis:
d) everything that is reasonable is real.
19. Hegel viewed history in his Philosophy of History as:
c) the development of the world spirit in time;
20. The philosophy of L. Feuerbach is:
a) materialism;
21. The materialistic concept of L. Feirbach was named:
e) anthropological materialism.
22. Feuerbach considered the main object of knowledge:
c) a person;
23. Feuerbach considered religion:
c) attribution of human attributes to God;
24. The "new ethics and religion of man", which Feuerbach called for, is religion and ethics:
25. Establish the correspondence of the philosopher to the philosophical doctrine:
1.transcendental idealism; b) Kant; 2. anthropological materialism; d) Feuerbach. 3. absolute idealism; a) Hegel; 4. philosophy of identity; c) Schelling;
26. Establish the correspondence of a philosophical treatise to a particular philosopher:
1. "Criticism of Pure Reason"; b) Kant; 2. "On the essence of Christianity"; d) Feuerbach. 3. "Science of Logic"; a) Hegel; 4. "The system of transcendental idealism"; c) Schelling;
A contemporary of many Italian humanists, Nikolai Kuzansky (1401-1464) is one of the most profound philosophers of the Renaissance. He was a native of southern Germany (Kuza town), of completely unremarkable origin. Nicholas, already in his school years, was influenced by mystics ("brothers of the common life"). At the University of Padua, in addition to the usual liberal arts education, which consisted in improvement in Latin and in the study of Greek, Nicholas was fond of mathematics and astronomy. Later he had to choose a spiritual career. The young priest, who made connections with the Italian humanists, was captured by their movement. Perhaps, like no other philosopher of this era, Nicholas combined in his works and in his activities the culture of the Middle Ages and the vigorously advancing culture of humanism. On the one hand, he is a very active hierarch of the Catholic Church, whom the humanist Pope Nicholas V also elevated to the cardinal dignity in 1448, on the other, an active member of the circle of humanists that had formed around this pope. The atmosphere that prevailed here is indicative of the good relations of the philosopher-cardinal with such a troublemaker of church peace as Lorenzo Valla. Kuzanets acquired the greatest influence when Piccolomini, a friend of his youth, became Pope Pius II, and he himself actually became the second person in the Roman church hierarchy. Nicholas combined confessional and administrative troubles with productive literary activity. He wrote a number of philosophical works in Latin - in the genre of treatise, reflection, dialogue. He also has his own scientific works. Unlike the overwhelming majority of contemporary Italian philosophers-humanists, Kuzanets was deeply interested in questions of mathematics and natural science, and outside of these interests his philosophical doctrine is incomprehensible. A prominent minister of the church, naturally, wrote purely theological works (in particular, sermons). The philosophical content of Nikolai's works is often very difficult to separate from the theological. In this respect, he continued the medieval tradition with its confusion of theology and philosophy. The most significant and well-known of the works of Kuzanets is the treatise "On learned ignorance" ("De docta ignorantia" - can be translated as "On sophisticated ignorance", "On knowing ignorance", 1440). It is adjoined by another treatise - "On Assumptions" (not later than 1444). In 1450 Nicholas wrote four dialogues under the general title "The Simpleton". The first two of them are called "On wisdom", the third - "On the mind", the fourth - "On the experience with weights." The name of these dialogues, as well as their content, attracts attention with its humanistic-democratic idea of asking for genuine wisdom not to a representative of the workshop of official scholarship, but to a person from the people, not bewildered by this pseudo-scholarship. As a thinker of a transitional era - the Middle Ages transforming into the Renaissance - Nikolai Kuzansky demonstrates in his works various, often very contradictory sides and facets of this era. As a mystic and contemplator, as he may have become already in his youth, he is the enemy of scholasticism, especially the Thomistic one, which led human thought into the dead ends of the knowledge of God. It was on the path of mysticism that Nicholas strove for effective worship of God. This is evidenced by the very titles of his works - "On the hidden God", "On the search for God", "On Godsonhood", "On the gift of the Father of lights" (all of them were created in 1445-1447), "On the vision of God" (1453 ), having a purely speculative orientation. It is believed that after the appearance of "On learned ignorance" and "On assumptions", especially after 1450, when the dialogues of the "Prostitute" were written, the mystical moods of the cardinal philosopher intensified, which was reflected in his works interpreting the concept of God in abstract philosophical plan, - "On the possibility of being" (1460), "On nein" (1462), as well as in works where the author's thoughts are clothed in an allegorical-symbolic form - "On beryl" ("Spiritual glasses", 1458 ), "On the hunt for wisdom" (1463), "On the game of the ball" (1463), "On the peak of contemplation" (1464). Kuzanets was also an enemy of scholasticism as a representative of humanistic education, who paid great attention to natural science issues. Hence the powerful intrusion of naturalistic considerations and ideas into the speculative-mystical constructions of Kuzanz. In various books on the history of philosophy, Nikolai Kuzansky is usually characterized as a Platonist. Indeed, he has many references to Plato. But Cusanz's Platonism should be understood more broadly, including Neoplatonism, which had a great influence on him even before the Florentine Platonists. Proclus is one of the main philosophical authorities for him. As you know, the Areopagitics also experienced a tremendous impact of Neoplatonism (especially the same Proclus). However, Kuzanets should not be regarded only as a Platonist. For example, he highly appreciated the ideas of Pythagoreanism, before which the ideas of Platonism sometimes even receded into the background. In a different context, Nicholas uses the ideas of other ancient philosophers and theologians - Augustine, Boethius, Socrates, Anaxagoras, Stoics, atomists. Kuzanets' concept of God should be interpreted as pantheistic, despite the fact that statements about the theistic nature of this concept are not uncommon in the historical and philosophical literature. Theism underlies any monotheistic religion and insists not only on a personal-transcendent understanding of God and his free-will creativity, but also on the omnipresence of this omnipotent principle. Pantheism undermines the personality-transcendental interpretation of God and insists on his impersonality and omnipresence. There is no rigid, impassable border between theism and pantheism. It should also be borne in mind that common to theism and pantheism (as well as deism) is the idea of a special, completely spiritual being-God, primary in relation to man, who cannot exist without such being. Nikolai Kuzansky understood that the most infinite and ultimately one God is not only and not so much an object of one or another positive religion - Christian, Muslim or Jewish, as an interreligious concept inherent in the faith of any people [see: "Scientific ignorance"], and various names of God, especially pagan ones, were determined not so much by the signs of the creator as by the signs of his creations [see: Ibid. I, 25, 83]. The main theme of the ontological problematics developed by Kuzanets is, on the one hand, the question of the relationship between the innumerable set of specific individual things and phenomena of the natural and human world and the divine absolute, and on the other hand, the question of God as an ultimate spiritual being, opposed to the world of finite bodily things, because if you remove God from creation, then it will turn into nothingness and nothing. [see: ibid. II, 3, 110]. But this traditional dualistic creationist idea is constantly interrupted by Nicholas with the thought of the unity of the infinite God and the world of finite things. "The being of God in the world is nothing but the being of the world in God" ["On assumptions", II, 7, 107]. The second part of this statement testifies to mystical pantheism (sometimes called pantheism), and the first to naturalistic pantheism. By virtue of the first of them, things and phenomena are only symbols of God, and by virtue of the second, they are quite stable and are of interest in themselves. Moreover, quite often the same formulations can be regarded both in the first and in the second aspects, for example, the interpretation of the world as a "sensible God". For Kuzanets, as a Renaissance philosopher who anticipated the birth of mathematical natural science, it became especially important to emphasize the existence in the world of ratios of measure, number and weight. Considering that the divine art at the creation of the world consisted mainly of geometry, arithmetic and music, declaring that "the first image of things in the mind of the creator is a number" ["On Assumptions", II, 2, 9], without which nothing is impossible to understand nor to create, Nicholas from a Platonist, as it were, becomes a Pythagorean, striving to replace ideas with numbers, attributing such a view already to Augustine and Boethius. Mathematics, according to Kuzanets, is applicable even in questions of theology, in positive theology, for example, when comparing the "blessed Trinity" to a triangle that has three right angles and is therefore infinite. Likewise, God Himself can be compared to the infinite circle. But Nikolai's Pythagoreanism was expressed not only and even not so much in the mathematization of theological speculations. Affirming the enormous help of mathematics in understanding "various divine truths" ["Scientific ignorance", I, 11, 30], he not only anticipated mathematical natural science, but also made a certain step in this direction in the essay "On the experiment with weights." The mathematical interpretation of existence was reflected in Kuzanz's cosmology. In the light of the above, it is clear why the intellectualization of the creative activity of God is associated with Kuzanets with a very fruitful problem of the relationship between nature and art. On the one hand, “art appears as a kind of imitation of nature” [“On assumptions”, II, 12, 121]. But on the other hand, after all, nature itself is considered as the result of the art of a divine master, who creates everything with the help of arithmetic, geometry and music. Kuzanets defended the objective-idealistic idea of "development", which went back to the same neo-Platonism, from the abstractly simple to the concretely complex, which were interpreted not as a reflection of some processes, but as an absolute reality. At the same time, the mystical side of Kuzanz's pantheism was manifested. Since God is not only at the beginning, but also at the end of all that exists, the return to him of the infinitely complex diversity of the world is, as it were, its "complication". However, with all the idealism and even mysticism of Nicholas' vision of the world, it quite sharply differs from the scholastic creationist in its dynamism, reminiscent of ancient natural philosophical constructions. The idea of a universal connection in nature was supplemented - albeit very modest - with the idea of real development, at least in organic nature. So, in the darkness of plant life, intellectual life is hidden [see: "On assumptions", II, 10, 123]. the vegetative force in the plant world, which is felt in the animal, and the intellectual force in the human world are connected by virtue of a single substantial ability [see: "On the game of the ball", 38-41]. Consequently, man is an organic element in the doctrine of Nicholas of Cuza. At the same time, the initial idea is man as a microcosm, which in his being reproduces (“pulls together”) the huge natural world around him. Kuzanets emphasized its "three-syllable" composition: "the small world" is the person himself; the "big world" is the universe; "the maximum world" - God, the divine absolute "Small is the similitude of the big, the big is the likeness of the maximum" [On the game of the ball, 42]. To clarify the problem of man, it is not so much important that he is a semblance of the universe, for it was established already in antiquity, ascertained by some humanists, and was the basis of the Renaissance naturalistic interpretations of man. For understanding a spiritual person, it is much more important to understand his attitude to the "maximum peace", to God. Man as a "second God" ["On beryl", 6, 7] is most of all likened to him by his mental activity and the corresponding creation of artificial forms. The human mind is a complex system of abilities. The main of them are three: feeling (sensus), reason (ratio) and reason (intellectusk The author of Scientific Ignorance uses the Triadic formula regarding God to comprehend these basic cognitive abilities, [because he sees in reason a mediator between feeling and reason. The problem of universals Kuzanets decided in the spirit of moderate realism, according to which [the general exists objectively, although only in the things themselves. and turn out to be the result of his analyzing and generalizing activity. Without such activity, scientific knowledge, first of all mathematical, the most reliable, is impossible, because number arises as "the development of reason." logic is nothing more than art, in which the power of reason unfolds a. Therefore, those who by nature are strong in reason, flourish in this art. "[On Assumptions, II, 2, 84]. the maximum activity of the mind as an intellectual focus of the microcosm is sometimes extended by Kuzanets to the entire area of the mind, which is an image of the divine mind with its ability to universally coagulate and unfold existence with all its attributes and properties [see. ibid, IV, 74]. Unlike feeling and reason, reason "comprehends only the universal, incorruptible and permanent" ["Scientific ignorance", III, 12, 259), thereby approaching the sphere of the infinite, absolute, divine. But Kuzanets puts faith above knowledge, and not so much in its theological-fideistic, as in the philosophical-epistemological sense. The author of Scientific Ignorance "agrees with all those teachers who" assert that all understanding begins with faith. " At the same time, there can be no question of a blind faith devoid of any understanding of Dkak's purely fideistic theological faith). "Reason is guided by faith, and faith is revealed by reason." The doctrine of Kuzanets about being is dialectical; deep dialectics is also contained in his doctrine of knowledge. The most important expression of such dynamism was his doctrine of opposites, which most powerfully emphasized the relativity of the constants of being. Being is permeated with a variety of opposites, the specific combination of which imparts certainty to certain things [see: "Scientific ignorance", II, 1, 95]. The living opposite is man himself, finite as a corporeal being and infinite in the highest aspirations of his spirit to comprehend the divine absolute. But the most important ontological opposition is the divine being itself. As being everywhere, it is “everything”, but as being not found anywhere, it is “nothing of everything” [Scientific ignorance, I, 16, 43]. Kuzanets repeatedly emphasizes that the ultimate simplicity, "curvature" of the absolute puts it beyond all opposites and contradictions, which, being overcome, drown in it, like drops in the ocean. His famous doctrine of the coincidence of opposites (coincidentia oppositorum) is connected with the activity of this higher theoretical faculty, which makes man likened to God. Well-known mathematical examples are given in "Scientific Ignorance" and other works. So, as the height of an isosceles triangle infinitely increases and, consequently, the angle opposite to the base decreases infinitely, decreasing with this increase, the triangle will coincide with a straight line. Similarly, as its radius increases, the circle will more and more coincide with the tangent to it. At infinity, straightness and curvature are generally indistinguishable, no matter what geometric shape we didn’t take it. [Kuzanets' doctrine of the coincidence of opposites grows into a deep dialectic of truth. Its essence lies in the position that truth - of course, at the human level - is inseparable from its opposite, from delusion. For truth, delusion is that shadow is for light. After all, even "the upper world abounds in light, but is not devoid of darkness," although it seems that the simplicity of light completely excludes it. "In the lower world, on the contrary, darkness reigns, although it is not entirely without light" ["On assumptions", I, 9, 42].
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Philosophy- -and; f. [from the Greek. phileō - love and sophia - wisdom]
1. Science about the most general laws of the development of nature, human society and thinking. Antique f. // something. Teaching about the most ........
Explanatory dictionary Kuznetsov
Philosophy- The name of the science of world order is formed on the same principle as; in the second part of this word - a Greek noun meaning "wisdom" (female name ........
Krylov's etymological dictionary
Philosophy- - a discipline that includes a system of knowledge about the development of world philosophical thought, fundamental problems of human existence, society and knowledge, contributing to ........
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Philosophy of Law- - the science of the most general theoretical and philosophical problems of jurisprudence and state studies. For a long time it acted as an integral part of philosophical systems .........
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Analytical Philosophy- the direction of Western, mainly Anglo-American, philosophy of the 20th century; reduces philosophy to the analysis of predominantly linguistic means of cognition; a kind of neopositivism. The main ........
Common Sense Philosophy- the idealistic school in Scottish philosophy 18 - early. 19th centuries See Scottish School.
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Immanent Philosophy- current in German philosophy of the end. 19 - early. 20th century, which asserted that the cognized reality is in the sphere of consciousness, i.e. e. is immanent to him. I thought the only reality ........
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Linguistic Philosophy- (philosophy of linguistic analysis - philosophy of an ordinary language), direction of analytical philosophy. In the spirit of neopositivism, he considers traditional philosophical problems ........
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Philosophy- (from fil ... and Greek. Sophia - wisdom) - a form of social consciousness, worldview, a system of ideas, views on the world and on the place in a non-human; explores cognitive, socio-political, ........
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Philosophy of life- the philosophical course of the end. 19 - early. 20 centuries, emanating from the concept of "life" as a kind of intuitively comprehended organic integrity and creative dynamics of being. In different........
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Philosophy of History- a section of philosophy dealing with the problems of the meaning of history, its laws, the main direction of human development and historical knowledge. Representatives ........
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Land of Emperor Nicholas II- see Severnaya Zemlya
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Emperor Nicholas I Bay- see Sovetskaya Gavan
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Alexandra Feodorovna (wife of Nicholas I)- Alexandra Feodorovna, Empress of All Russia, wife of Emperor Nicholas I, daughter of King Frederick Wilhelm III of Prussia, Frederic-Louise-Charlotte-Wilhelmina, ........
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Alexandra Feodorovna, Wife of Nicholas II- - Russian empress, nee princess of Hessian (1872-1918), wife of Nicholas II from November 1894. In the history of the fall of the Romanov dynasty, she played approximately the same role ........
Alexandra Feodorovna, wife of Nicholas I- - Empress of All Russia, wife of Emperor Nicholas I, daughter of King Frederick Wilhelm III of Prussia, Frederic-Louise-Charlotte-Wilhelmina, was born on July 1, 1798, joined ........
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Alexandra Feodorovna, Wife of Nicholas II- - Empress of All Russia, wife of the reigning Emperor Nikolai Alexandrovich, daughter of the Grand Duke of Hessian Ludwig IV from his marriage to Princess Alice of Great Britain .........
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Greek Culture Vii-iv Cc. BC. Philosophy & Science- The development of trade and common Greek relations led to the emergence of writing, which was an important stage in the development of Greek culture. Linear Mycenaean everywhere ........
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Italian Philosophy of the Xvi and the First Half of the Xvii B.- Ancient heritage
By the beginning of the XVI century. the new secular philosophy already had its own tradition associated with the names of Lorenzo Valla, Picodella Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino. She developed ........
Historical Dictionary
Culture of the Early Roman Empire. Literature, Philosophy & Science- The central idea uniting all other elements of the official ideology during the period of the empire was the idea of the greatness and eternity of Rome and its providential mission, merged ........
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Literature And Philosophy Of China In Iii-viii Centuries.- During the time of the Taisk Empire, the reputation of the golden age of Chinese medieval poetry has long been firmly established. Indeed in the VIII century. lived the three greatest poets of the Chinese ........
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1. Philosophy is (indicate the most correct answer):
a) the dynamic process of questioning, searching for the lot of a person;
2. The term "philosophy" means:
d) love for wisdom;
3. The subject of philosophy is (indicate the most correct answer):
d) universal in the "world-man" system;
4. Philosophy has inherent functions:
d) all these functions taken together.
5. Philosophy explains the world through:
d) rational argumentation;
6. Philosophy - this is:
a) worldview;
7. Answers to philosophical questions are sought in:
d) arguments and conclusions of reason;
8. The main question of philosophy is (indicate the most correct answer):
a) the question of the relation of consciousness to being, ideal to material;
9. The wording of the main question of philosophy includes (indicate all correct options):
b) what is primary: material or ideal (Engels)? c) is life worth living (Camus)? d) how to be happy (Socrates)?
10. Perpetual philosophical questions include (list all correct options):
b) what is the essence of man? d) what is the meaning of life?
11. Philosophy is (indicate the most correct answer):
a) a reasonable understanding of the world;
12. A necessary sign of a philosophical worldview is:
d) abstractness;
13. A stable system of views on the world, beliefs, ideas, beliefs of a person, determining the choice of a certain life position, attitude towards the world and other people, - this is:
c) worldview;
14. Establish a sequence of historical types of worldview:
b) mythology; d) religion. a) philosophy; c) science;
15. In its origins, philosophy and science relied on:
a) mythology;
16. In philosophy, myth is understood as (indicate the most correct answer):
d) integral, undivided comprehension of the world and phenomena in it by primitive man, built on the "werewolf" logic;
17. In this picture of the world, "natural" and "supernatural" do not differ from each other:
c) in the mythological;
18. The relationship between philosophy and science is that:
c) philosophy and science are partially included in each other;
19. Main sections of philosophy (list all correct options):
a) ontology; d) axiology; f) anthropology; g) epistemology.
20. The doctrine of being as such. A branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of being:
d) ontology;
21. Philosophical doctrine about the universal laws of knowledge - this is:
a) epistemology;
22. The central problem of ontology is:
c) the ratio of being and consciousness, material and ideal;
23. Axiology - this teaching:
a) about values, about their origin and essence;
24. Materialistic directions recognize the following provisions (indicate all correct options):
a) the world consists of material bodies, each body of the smallest particles; c) matter is an objective reality; d) motion is an attribute of matter;
(Question 2) 2. Ancient philosophy
2. To what form of materialism can the teaching of Thales of Miletus be attributed:
d) spontaneous materialism.
3. Representatives of the Milesian school are called spontaneous materialists, because they:
a) took material elements as the fundamental principle of the world;
4. The later author wrote about the teachings of this philosopher:
"This cosmos, one and the same for all that exists, was not created by any God or any man, but it has always been, is and will be an eternally living fire, measures that light up and measures that are extinguished."
e) Heraclitus.
5. The fragment “Everything flows, everything changes” expresses the essence:
a) dialectical thoughts of Heraclitus;
d) Heraclitus;
7. This ancient thinker first formulated the concept of "philosophy":
a) Pythagoras;
8. The number in the Pythagorean school is:
b) the beginning of the world, identical to the thing;
9. According to Parmenides, we fall into error when we think:
a) non-being;
10. The founder of ancient atomism is:
b) Democritus-Leucippus;
11. Ontology of Democritus is based on the principle:
a) the world consists of invisible, indivisible particles - atoms;
12. This ancient thinker considered "man to be the measure of all things":
a) Protagoras;
13. Socrates said: "I know that I do not know anything, but ..."
e) others do not know this either.
e) communication with the interlocutor in order to find the truth for him.
15. Idea, according to Plato:
b) intangible, but intelligible;
16. True knowledge according to Plato is:
c) the memory of the soul of the ideas it saw in the other world;
17. This ancient philosopher wrote: “ Since the soul is immortal, there is nothing that it does not know; therefore, it is not surprising that she is able to remember what she previously knew. And since everything in nature is related to each other, and the soul has cognized everything, nothing interferes with the one who remembered one thing, to find and everything else: after all, to seek and cognize - that is exactly what it means to remember. "
c) Plato;
18. Plato's "state" was:
c) a caste-type state, with a clear class division;
19. Plato in his "State" divided society into three classes:
d) philosophers, warriors, artisans;
20. According to Aristotle, every thing is:
c) the unity of matter and form;
21. This ancient philosopher wrote:«... State - a product of natural development and that man is by nature - a political being. He who lives by virtue of his nature, and not as a result of random circumstances, outside the state, is either a superman or a morally underdeveloped being. ..»
a) Aristotle;
22. In their ethical concept, the Stoics put forward:
a) the ideal of a sage who dispassionately endures the blows of fate;
23. Determine the doctrine of which philosopher the following principles belong:
1.water; d) Thales; 2. apeiron; b) Anaximander; 3. fire; e) Heraclitus. 4. number; c) Pythagoras; 5.atoms; a) Democritus;
24. Determine in the concepts of which ancient philosophers the following categories play a dominant role:
1. Plato; b) idea; 2. Heraclitus; a) logos; 3. Aristotle; d) form; 4. Democritus; e) atom; 5. Empedocles; f) love; g) hatred.
25. Establish the correspondence of the philosopher to a particular school:
1. Parmenides; b) Eleyskaya school; 2. Democritus; a) atomists; 3. Anaximander; c) Milesian school; 4. Plotinus; d) neoplatonism; 5. Pyrrho; e) skeptics.
26. Establish the correspondence of the philosopher to the philosophical direction:
1. materialism; b) Democritus; d) Epicurus; 2. idealism; a) Parmenides; e) Plato. c) Aristotle;
27. Establish the correspondence of the teacher to the student:
1. Plato; b) Aristotle; 2. Socrates; d) Plato. 3. Aristotle; c) Alexander the Great; 4. Thales; a) Anaximander;
28. Establish a sequence of philosophical teachings of antiquity:
b) "everything is out of water"; c) "at the base of everything lies a number"; a) "world of ideas"; d) "refraining from judgment."
29. Establish the sequence of philosophical schools of antiquity:
b) Milesian school; a) the Pythagoreans; d) Academy; c) Lyceum; e) neoplatonists.
One of the greatest philosophers, scientist and politician Nikolai Kuzansky was born in the south of Germany, in the village of Kuza, in 1401. As a teenager, Nikolai escaped from his parental home, after wandering he was sheltered by Count Theodoric von Manderscheid, who patronized him throughout his life. Presumably, the guardian sent him to study in Holland. There, in the school of "brothers of common life", he studied Greek and Latin, was engaged in commenting and rewriting books on philosophy and theology. After leaving school, he returned to Germany and continued his studies at the University of Heidelberg.
Nikolay Kuzansky philosophy, biography and formation
Arriving in Padua in 1417, Nicholas of Kuzansky began to study church law. But jurisprudence alone was not enough for a talented young man, he began to study medicine and mathematics, geography and astronomy, natural science and exact sciences. In Padua, he met his future friends Paolo Toscanelli and Julian Caesarini, they instilled in Nicholas a craving for philosophy and literature.
After receiving his doctorate in 1423, Nicholas of Cusansky went to Italy, where he met the Roman Chancellor Poggio Bracciolini, who interested him in his thirst for theology. After returning to Germany, he began to study theological work in Cologne. In 1426, having become a priest, he was appointed secretary of the papal legate, Cardinal Orsini, and later he himself became rector of the church in Koblenz.
In the first half of the 15th century, the authority of the Catholic Church was undermined, numerous feuds between cathedrals and the pope, feudal lords and clergy led to a split in the church world. To restore the influence of the church, reforms were required, many cardinals proposed to limit the papal influence and strengthen the conciliar authority. Nicholas of Kuzansky also came to the council in 1433, who spoke in favor of depriving the pope of the supreme power.
Reforms of Nikolai Kuzansky in church and state
Reform ideas concerned both the church and the state as a whole. Nicholas of Kuzansky, whose philosophy was manifested in his first work "On the consent of Catholics," questioned the document, the so-called Constantine gift, which spoke of the transfer of not only spiritual, but also secular power to the church by Emperor Constantine. Also, Nikolai Kuzansky proclaimed the idea, proposed earlier by Occam, about the will of the people, equal for the state and the church. And any ruler is only the bearer of the will of the people. He also proposed to separate the power of the church from the state power.
Under the threat of an invasion of Turkish troops, the Greeks and Byzantines held negotiations on the unification of the eastern and western churches, to which Nikolai Kuzansky also came. There he met Vissarion and Plithon, known at that time by the Neoplatonists, who played the main role in the formation of the worldview of the future philosopher.
The ideas about the reforms proposed by Nikolai Kuzansky, philosophy, the main ideas, which are, of course, quite difficult to describe briefly - all this was inspired by the influence of the era, its contradictions, the struggle of various tendencies. Only a nascent anti-feudal life position is still quite dependent on medieval ideas and lifestyle. The elevation of faith, excessive asceticism, calls to mortify the flesh, were absolutely not combined with the cheerfulness of the era. A vivid interest in the knowledge of the laws of nature, an assessment of the merits of mathematics and other exact sciences, the influence of antiquity and mythology - such was Nikolai Kuzansky took an active part in church and political life, but at the same time devoted a lot of time to science.
Renaissance philosophy, pantheism. Nikolay Kuzansky, Bruno
Acquaintance with Ambrogio Traversari, Sylvius Piccolomini (future Pope Pius II) by famous humanists of that time influenced the perception of the worldview of Nicholas of Cusa. Turning to ancient philosophical works, he read Proclus and Plato in the originals.
An in-depth study of astronomy, cosmography, mathematics, and a community of interests connected him with humanists such as his friend Toscanelli. The philosophy of infinity of Nikolai Kuzansky was consistent with that time. Scientific principles required a methodical study of mathematics, counting, measuring, weighing. His treatise "On Experiment with Weighing" was the first step towards a new era of scientific and technological progress. In his work, Nikolai Kuzansky touches upon experimental physics, dynamics, statics, he manages to link theory with practice. He was the first to create in Europe geographic map, and also proposed to reform, which was subsequently corrected, but only after a century and a half.
The philosophy of Nikolai Cusansky and Giordano Bruno is somewhat similar. Ideas regarding cosmology were significantly newer ideas of Copernicus and paved the way for the teachings of Bruno. They left many scientific works on theology, philosophy, church and political topics, united by one idea, about an endless universe. The transition from the traditions of the Middle Ages is clearly demonstrated by Nikolai Kuzansky, developing the concept of the limit, which he used in explaining God and figures in geometry.
God is the world, and the world is God. Ratio theory
The main problem in the reflections of Nicholas of Cusa was the relationship between the world and God, the theocentrism of his philosophy was completely alien to medieval theology. Kuzansky contrasted scholastic knowledge of God with the theory of "learned ignorance", which gave the name to his first philosophical work.
Scientific ignorance does not mean a rejection of God and knowledge of the world, it is not a rejection of skepticism, but the ability to express the full amount of knowledge using scholastic logic. Philosophy should proceed in resolving issues of God and the world, precisely from ignorance and incommensurability of concepts and ideas about the object. Nikolai Kuzansky explains pantheism not exclusively from a religious point of view, but rather from a philosophical one. The identification of God as a single whole with the world and the essence of everything formed the basis of his philosophy. This made it possible to move away from religiosity and personalization of God, simplified ideas about spirituality and the sublimity of all things.
When Johann Wenck accused Nicholas of Cusa of hereticism, then in his defense he expressed the need to separate God - an object of worship based on the perception of a cult of worship, from God - an object of study. Thus, Nikolai Kuzansky, posed God as his own philosophical perception, and not as a problem of theology. In this case, we are talking about the relationship of the finished world of things with the infinite, original world.
The unfolding of the absolute maximum, the starting point of reference
God, whom he considered in complete renunciation of the world of things, is the beginning of the greatest being, the absolute maximum. This is the beginning of everything and a single whole with everything, so Nicholas of Kuzansky argued. Philosophy proceeds from the fact that God contains everything else. And surpasses everything.
It is the negative concept of God that was introduced by Nikolai of Kuzansky, whose philosophy of correlation rejects his otherworldlyness, that unites him with the world. God, as it were, embraces the world, and the world is in God. This position is close to pantheism, since it is not God who is identified with nature, but the world and nature are inside him, just as he himself is inside man.
To characterize the process, Nicholas Kuzansky, whose philosophy lies in the process of transition from the divine to the mundane, uses the term "deployment". It implies the very unfolding of the absolute, this leads to the deepest understanding of the unity of the world, the destruction of hierarchical concepts.
As explained by such a scientist as Nikolai Kuzansky, philosophy, the main ideas of which are contained in the concept of an entity that is in a collapsed form inside God, the unfolding of peace is movement, the time interval is an instant, and the line of deployment is a point. The doctrine itself contains the dialectical basis for the coincidence of the opposites of the world and God. Creation, interpreted as unfolding, cannot be temporary, because creation is the existence of God, and it is eternal. Thus, the creation itself, while not being temporary, is obtained as a manifestation of necessity, and not of a divine plan, as religion teaches.
Cosmology in the ideas of Kuzansky. The concept of the infinity of the universe and divine essence
The universe exists as a constant unfolding of God, since only in him, the absolute maximum, the existence of the most perfect state in a multitude is possible, in other words, outside of God the Universe can only be in a limited form. This limitation is the main indicator of the difference between God and the Universe. As Nikolai Kuzansky represented, philosophy briefly explains this problem and needs a complete revision. The scholastic picture of the world, when the created world, movable in time, is limited by the immobility of heavenly bodies and is identified with the Christian god, does not coincide with the teaching presented by Nikolai Kuzansky. Philosophy, the main ideas of which are enclosed in the pantheistic representation of the divine and the mundane, explains the concept of God and the world as a circle with a center inside, since he is nowhere and at the same time everywhere.
Space is inside a person, and a person is inside God
Based on this theory of assimilating God to the natural cosmos, the world does not have its own circle, but its center is everywhere. But still the world is not infinite, otherwise it would be equal to God, and in this case it would have a circle with a center, it would have an end and, accordingly, there would be a beginning, there would be an end. This is how the connection between the dependence of the world on God is manifested, explains Nikolai Kuzansky. Philosophy, the main ideas of which can be briefly explained by the infinity, the dependence of the worldly on the divine principles, the phenomenon of coagulation in physical and spatial existence. Based on this, one can draw a conclusion about cosmology. It turns out that the Earth is not the center of the world, and its circle cannot be motionless celestial bodies, says Nikolai Kuzansky.
The philosophy of cosmology deprives the earth, which was previously considered to be privileged, and God becomes the center of everything, at the same time it explains the mobility of the earth. Rejecting the central location and immobility of the earth, not imagining the scheme of movement of all bodies in the sky, shaking the already established concept of the earth, he paved the way for the development of cosmology and deprived geocentrism of logical justification.
Comprehension of the divine essence, scientific ignorance
Having destroyed the religious concept of the universe, which is characteristic of the Neoplatonists, Nikolai Kuzansky presented God not as a descending being, descended to the level of a material being, but as a manifestation of a higher divine essence. Thus, the world is presented as a beautiful divine creation that allows you to see the superiority and art of God. The corruption of all that exists cannot hide the nobility of God's plan. The beauty of the world, which Nikolai Kuzansky described, the philosophy of universal connections and harmony of creation are justified. When creating the world, God used geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music and all the arts used by man.
The harmony of the world is clearly expressed in man - the greatest creation of God. Nikolay Kuzansky speaks about it. Philosophy, the main idea of which is to explain everything that is beautiful that was created by God, is closely related to the study of cosmology and pantheistic ontology. Man is seen as the supreme creation of God. Placing him above everything, placing him at a certain level in the hierarchy, we can say that he is, as it were, deified. Thus, he turns out to be a supreme being, embracing the whole world.
What is characteristic of everything essential: the attraction of opposites is clearly expressed in human existence. The correspondence of the reduced maximum in God and the cosmic unfolding of infinity are reflected in human nature, the so-called reduced world. This complete perfection is the divine essence, which is characteristic of humanity as a whole, and not of an individual. Man, having risen to the maximum level, becoming a single whole with it, could become the same God, perceived as a God-man.
Such a union of human and divine nature is possible only in God's son, Christ. Thus, the theory of man is closely intertwined with Christology, and that with the theory of unfolding, which was put forward by Nikolai Kuzansky. Philosophy briefly and clearly explains that the absolutely perfect nature of the son of God is the collapse of the nature of man, like the cosmos in a collapsed state, contained in God. Humanity embodied in Christ is infinite, but limited in an individual, it is finite. Thus, man is infinite - a finite being. The identification of Christ and man by Nikolai Kuzansky helped him to displace the idea of the creation of man inherent in the teaching of the church. He considers man not as a creation, but as a creator, and this is what he likens to his divine essence. This is evidenced by the ability of human thinking to infinitely comprehend the world, to learn new things.
The philosophy of pantheism of Nikolai Kuzansky and his followers
The idea of the relationship between knowledge and faith is associated with the philosophy of pantheism of Nikolai Kuzansky. The doctrine was based on the idea of the cosmos as a book of divine origin, where God is revealed to human knowledge. Therefore, faith is the way of comprehending the divine essence in a curtailed form, which is in the person himself. But, on the other hand, the awareness of the expanded essence, the awareness of God is the work of the human mind, which cannot be replaced by blind faith. Insufficient knowledge Nikolai Kuzansky opposed intellectual contemplation, which gives the concept of the attraction of opposites. He calls such knowledge intellectual vision or intuition, awareness of the unconscious, subconscious, in other words, scientific ignorance.
The desire to comprehend the true meaning, the inability to grasp the immense show the incompleteness of objects. And truth is presented as something objective, but unattainable, since knowledge, study cannot stop, and truth is infinite. Kuzansky's thoughts that human knowledge is relative extended to religious knowledge. Thus, any religion is only remotely close to the truth, therefore, one should adhere to religious tolerance and rejection of religious fanaticism.
Outstanding philosopher, thinker, or heretic?
The main ideas of Nikolai Kuzansky turned out to be very fruitful for the further development of progressive philosophy. The influence exerted by the development of natural science, humanism, made him an outstanding philosopher of the Renaissance. The doctrine of dialectics, the attraction of opposites continued the development of German idealism in the philosophy of the 18-19 centuries.
Cosmology, the idea of an infinite universe, the absence of a circle and a center in it, also had a strong influence on the perception of the world. It was later continued in the writings of a follower of Cusansky, Giordano Bruno.
Perceiving man as a god, a creator, Kuzansky helped to raise the significance of man. He extolled the mental abilities of man for unlimited knowledge, although, in essence, this was incompatible with the then church's idea of man and was perceived as heretic. Many of the ideas of Nicholas of Kuzansky contradicted the feudal system and undermined the authority of the church. But it was he who laid the foundation for the philosophy of the Renaissance and became an outstanding representative of the culture of his time.
