Existential psychology. Humanistic and existential psychology. Existential counseling. Logotherapy. Humanitarian (existential-humanistic) approach Basic principles of humanistic and existential psychology
Existential psychology studies life, human existence in its formation and development, and comes from the word existentia - existence. A person comes into this world and solves the problems of loneliness, love, choice, search for meaning and confrontation with the reality of the inevitability of death.
Existential psychology - definition
Existential traditional psychology is a direction that grew out of existential philosophy, which considers a person as a unique creation, and his whole life is unique and has great value. The existential direction in psychology began to actively develop two centuries ago, and is in demand in the modern world.
History of existential psychology
The founder of existential psychology - it is difficult to name one specific person; a whole galaxy of philosophers and psychologists influenced the development of this direction. Existential traditional psychology takes its development from phenomenology and the ideas of Russian writers L.N. Tolstoy and F.I. Dostoevsky. At the beginning of the 20th century. German psychologist and philosopher K. Jaspers, revising the traditional approaches of psychiatry, introduced the ideas of existentialism into them.
Ludwig Binswanger, a Swiss physician, studying the works of Jaspers and Heidegger, introduced existentialism into psychology. A person no longer becomes a simple controlled container of psychological mechanisms and instincts, but an integral, unique entity. Next comes the rapid development of existential psychology and its branches, which include the famous logotherapy of V. Frankl.
Basic ideas of the existential approach in psychology
Existential-humanistic psychology is based on key aspects:
- consciousness and self-awareness;
- Liberty;
- responsibility;
- search for meaning;
- choice;
- awareness of death.
Existential psychology, its ideas and principles are taken from existential philosophy, which is the “foremother”:
- a person’s free will helps him to be in constant development;
- knowledge of one’s inner world is the leading need of the individual;
- awareness of one’s mortality and acceptance of this fact is a powerful resource for revealing the creative component of the personality;
- Existential anxiety becomes the trigger for searching for one's own unique meaning in a seemingly meaningless existence.
Existential psychology - representatives
The existential psychology of V. Frankl is the most striking example of not giving up, of finding within yourself the desire to live on. Frankl aroused great confidence in himself because all of his psychotherapeutic methods were tested on himself and those people who, by a fatal coincidence, were in the dungeons of a fascist concentration camp. Other famous existential psychologists:
- Rollo May;
- Irwin Yalom;
- James Bugental;
- Alfred Lenglet;
- Alice Holzhey-Kuntz;
- Boss Medard;
- Ludwig Binswanger.
Existential approach in psychology
The existential-humanistic approach in psychology is a direction in which a person’s personality is of great value due to its unique internal picture of the world, its uniqueness. Existential psychology, teaching simple techniques and exercises to the patient in situations of doom and emptiness from existence, helps people find new meanings and choices, get out of the victim position when nothing can be done to improve.
Basic principles of humanistic and existential psychology
Existential psychology is a branch of humanistic psychology, so many central concepts about human personality have a similar description. Humanistic and existential psychology main provisions:
- the openness of a person’s personality to the world, experiencing oneself in this world and feeling the world within oneself is the main psychological reality;
- human nature is such that he constantly needs self-discovery and continuous development of his potentials;
- a person has freedom, will and the ability to choose within the framework of his values;
- personality is a creative, active entity;
- the life of an individual person should be considered as a single process of becoming and being.
Understanding personality within the framework of existential psychology
Personality in existential psychology is unrepeatable, unique and authentic. Existential psychology does not set boundaries for a person, locking him in the present, but allows him to grow and change. When describing personality, existentialists use the category of processes, and are not based, like other directions of classical psychology, on the description of character traits and states. A person has free will and...
Methods of existential psychology
Existential psychology as a science should be based on specific methods, techniques, and empirical research, but here you can stumble upon a number of contradictions. The most basic method is to build a relationship between client and therapist that can be described in words: authenticity, commitment and presence. Authenticity involves the therapist's full disclosure to the patient to create a trusting relationship.
Methods of work of an existential psychologist with fear of death:
- “Permission to endure” - in order to work with the awareness of death, the therapist himself must work through his fears in this area and strive during therapy to encourage the patient to talk about death as much as possible.
- Working with defense mechanisms. The therapist leads the patient to change his ideas about death gently but persistently, working through and identifying inadequate defense mechanisms.
- Working with dreams. Nightmares often contain unconscious, repressed fears of death.
Problems of existential psychology
The main ideas and theories of existential psychology have been reduced by specialists in this direction to a general range of problem areas that existential psychology faces. Irvin Yalom identified 4 series of key problems or nodes:
- Problems of life, death and time - a person realizes that he is mortal, that this is an inevitable reality. The desire to live and the fear of dying form a conflict.
- Problems of communication, loneliness and love - awareness of loneliness in this world: a person comes into this world alone and leaves it just as lonely, awareness of himself alone in the crowd.
- Problems of responsibility, choice and freedom - a person’s desire for freedom and the absence of patterns, restraining, ordered structures and at the same time the fear of their absence gives rise to conflict.
- The problems of meaning and meaninglessness of human existence stem from the first three problems. A person is constantly in the knowledge of himself and the world around him, creating his own meanings. The loss of meaning comes from the awareness of one’s loneliness, isolation and the inevitability of death.
Existential crisis in psychology
The principles of existential psychology are based on the presence of problems that arise in an individual. An existential crisis overtakes any person from youth to old age; everyone has at least once wondered about the meaning of life, their existence, being. For some, these are ordinary thoughts; for others, the crisis can be acute and painful, leading to indifference and a lack of further motivation for life: all meanings have been exhausted, the future is predictable and monotonous.
An existential crisis can penetrate into all spheres of human life. It is believed that this phenomenon is characteristic of people in developed countries who have satisfied all their needs and have a time of analysis and reflection about their own lives. A person who has lost his loved ones and thought in the category “We” is faced with the question: “Who am I without them?”
Books on existential psychology
Rollo May “Existential Psychology” is one of the unique publications of an authoritative existential therapist, written in simple language, it will be useful reading for both ordinary readers interested in psychology and experienced psychologists. What else can you read on this topic:
- « Existential psychology of deep communication» S.L. Bratchenko. The book examines in detail the history of the emergence of the existential-humanistic approach in psychology, with much attention paid to counseling.
- « Life options. Essays on existential psychology" V.N. Druzhinin. Problems of life and death, how to find meaning in all this for a tired person and how an existential psychologist can help - all these questions are covered in the book.
- « Existential psychotherapy» I. Yalom. The books of this famous psychoanalyst can be re-read endlessly; the author is talented not only in his profession of helping people, but also as a writer. This book is a fundamental work with a set of operating techniques and techniques.
- « Psychotechnics of existential choice" M. Papush. Learning to live a quality and fruitful life, to rejoice and work is as real as learning something, for example, to play the piano - it’s difficult, but with practice everything comes.
- « Modern existential analysis: history, theory, practice, research" A. Langle, E. Ukolova, V. Shumsky. The book presents a holistic view of existential analysis and its valuable contribution to the development of existential psychology.
Existential-humanistic practice of working with clients
Existential-humanistic practice has general and specific approaches to working with clients. They have common goals, which are related to improving the functional ability in the emotional and social spheres of the client, as well as increasing his self-esteem, self-perception and self-actualization. At the same time, there are differences in approaches to the client’s personality and in problem-solving techniques.
Client-centered therapy is aimed at the client’s self-actualization, his awareness of his relationship to himself, to the world around him, to his behavior, develops the creative potential of the individual, his ability for self-development.
Philosophy of client-centered therapy
The basis is the understanding that people are capable of resolving any conflicts, but they are limited in their knowledge about themselves. Conflicts arise as a result of inconsistency of one's own organismic assessment process with an assessment-value position of the environment.
Clients are able to overcome obstacles to the perception of both external and internal experience, to form ideas about themselves as a fully functioning personality, a self-actualizing individual, if the therapist has the necessary personal qualities. Creating an atmosphere of relationship with the client is one of the main conditions of the therapeutic process. If these conditions are met, then clients can achieve self-actualization, resolve conflict, acquire positive values, and increase the tendency of positive personal growth.
Therapist-client relationship
In order for the client to achieve the image of a “fully functioning person,” the intervention of a therapist is necessary, who implements the necessary therapeutic conditions based on sincerity, empathy, unconditional positive regard for the client, including the following.
- 1. Positive change in the client's personality is possible through the establishment of a relationship and contact where the client “knows the therapist.”
- 2. The client is in a state of inadequacy, vulnerable and anxious.
- 3. The therapist is harmonious and integrated, holistic and sincere in the relationship.
- 4. The therapist experiences positive unconditional attention to the client and does not judge his feelings and experiences.
- 5. The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client’s inner world and seeks to convey this to him.
- 6. It is necessary to convey empathy and unconditional positive understanding to the client.
Therapeutic process
The essence of the therapeutic process is that the client himself makes those changes in his behavior and his relationships that are important and necessary for him, based on awareness of these problems (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2
Key Characteristics of Client-Centered Therapy
|
Philosophy of the method |
Therapy technique |
Qualities therapist |
The therapist's position in relation to the client |
|
|
– a person has sufficient resources to solve his problems |
– improvement of mental functional capabilities; – increased self-actualization |
and experiences; – the client’s cognitive capabilities are expanded |
to self-disclosure;
|
|
The main principles of the therapeutic process can be summarized as follows:
- 1) it is necessary to use the client’s desire to change his situation;
- 2) in the process of therapeutic interaction, attention is focused on emotional aspects rather than intellectual ones;
- 3) therapy is based on the immediate situation that develops between the therapist and the client (the “here and now” principle), and not on the client’s past experience; in this regard, diagnosis is not used in the therapeutic process, since it interferes with the client’s personal growth;
- 4) therapy is focused on the client’s initiative, the therapist’s participation is minimal;
- 5) the main procedures are - indirect interview, empathic listening, paraphrasing, comments carry the functions of reflection, interpretation, direct questioning or research.
The humanistic approaches of K. Rogers influenced the development of methods of interaction between social workers and clients and the principles of relationships. The concept of a “normally functioning person” has become a methodological guideline for social work practice in approaches to the ideal image of a client and his model of behavior, which a social worker should strive for when assisting a client.
Existential therapy
Philosophy of the method. According to R. May's approaches, therapy should not be aimed at “relieving anxiety,” but so that the client can “live with normal anxiety as a stimulant to vital existence, which is a source of energy that increases the potential of life.”
However, the ultimate goal of therapy is to help people become free and “realize and experience their possibilities.” R. May believed that when people lose freedom, they become apathetic, they develop various forms of neurosis, and this leads not only to a decrease in personal resources, but also affects people’s ability to participate in communicative activities, “to share their feelings and thoughts with others".
From the researcher’s point of view, psychotherapy is an indicator of the bankruptcy of culture in the 20th century, an indicator that humanity is “in disorder” and that it has lost freedom. Troubles regarding human destiny and regarding individual freedom are interconnected and can be resolved to the extent that they are realized. In this regard, therapy is a method of “understanding destiny in order to increase the experience of freedom.”
The relationship between therapist and client. Empathy is at the core of the relationship between therapist and client. By empathy, R. May understood a state when “The ego and mental state of the consultant and the client can temporarily merge, forming a single mental whole.”
An important factor in the interaction between the therapist and the client is the relationship that is built on the “here and now” principle. Much attention is paid to authenticity; the therapist acts for the client as a real person who seeks to understand and feel the client’s problem.
Relationships are built not only on the basis of empathic seeing and listening, but also on the basis of understanding the client's language. Mastery of the client's language is a necessary component of the therapeutic process, an expression of a certain degree of identification between the therapist and the client.
Method and goals. Existential therapy aims to confront clients with existential concerns. Therapists using existential methods of help have a broad paradigm of support, for example:
- – some of them work with free associations and interpretations;
- – others focus the focus of activities on the client’s personality;
- – third – on verbal communication.
V. Frankl proposed the technique of “paradoxical intention”. According to this method, the client maintains fear, the desire for what exactly he is afraid of. As a result of therapy, the reaction that clients are avoiding is deliberately strengthened so that events take on comic forms. Thus, V. Frankl advised his client, suffering from palpitations, accompanied by anxiety and fear, to specifically visit those places where she could experience the indicated symptoms. After some time, her fears and heart palpitations went away.
Practical method is to make clients aware of their experiences that lead to existential worries. The client enters into a "relationship with his own I", “feels meaning”, thereby finding answers to many of his problems. "Feeling meaning" is discovered through understanding one's body, when the individual learns to respond and interpret his existential concerns, thereby gaining new experience of life based on the control of his defense mechanisms.
Existential-humanistic psychology and therapy in psychosocial practice
Philosophy of helping. In the theory and practice of social work, which adheres to an existential-humanistic perspective, a person is viewed as a unique individual who has a formed self-concept and strives for self-realization (Fig. 3.3).
Rice. 3.3.
Environment is considered as a system consisting of a number of existential situations that have meaning for the client and put him in a situation of choice. When faced with life situations, a person realizes individual growth and development, thereby discovering the ability to make independent decisions, demonstrates the ability to build his own destiny, acquire an identity and a system of values.
However, in the process of living out a life scenario, people may have difficulties when they are troubled by existential guilt, social rejection, when their life is a process of self-alienation, or when they are unable to make choices or lack meaningful values. In this case, the assistance of a social worker is necessary, which is carried out through a system of follow-up actions.
Assessment of the situation. In the assessment process, attention is paid to the existential aspects of the individual and the situation, the process of development of the individual, his values, goals in life, and the characteristics of his self-concept. The current situation is reflected in terms of the client's emotional experience, in terms of anxiety and guilt.
Contract is associated with existential problems, but the goals achieved must be of a material nature.
Interventions reflect the existential philosophy of helping individuals, families, and groups. Social workers explain the situation to clients, help build new life plans, and create conditions for the adoption of a new philosophy and lifestyle. New goals, ideals and values help clients connect with other people, form new attitudes towards themselves, and update internal resources.
Social worker acts as an adviser, friend, companion, a “real” person.
In the theory and practice of social work, the existential-humanistic approach is reflected in special techniques and methods. The ideology and techniques of this direction can be reflected in other methods of social work - in the functional school, which can be considered as a variant of the existential-psychodynamic approach. In the context of the theories of symbolic interactionism, an interactional model of social work has been formed.
The existential-humanistic approach to psychotherapy is one of the three main approaches in this area. The existential-humanistic approach is based on the works of G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, C. Rogers, R. May, A. Maslow.
The essence of this approach is, first of all, the recognition of a person’s freedom to build his life and the ability to do this, in the understanding of a person as a unity of body, psyche and spirit. Representatives of the humanistic trend in psychotherapy tend to see a person as an innately active being, struggling, self-affirming, increasing his capabilities, with an almost limitless capacity for positive growth. Therefore, the psychotherapist’s efforts are aimed at the patient’s personal growth, and not just at eliminating some painful symptoms.
Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - these and similar concepts characterize the basic needs of a person. “Humans inherently strive to find purpose and fulfill their purpose in life.”(V. Frankl).
It is believed that the cause of psychological problems are deeper (and not always clearly recognized) existential problems: freedom of choice and responsibility, loneliness and interconnectedness with other people, acceptance of the inevitability of death, the search for the meaning of one’s life. In therapy, the client and therapist work together to help the former understand the way he or she answers existential questions and to revise some of the answers in ways that make the client's life more fulfilling.
Experiential therapeutic change typically occurs through a real, congruent interpersonal relationship between patient and therapist. Emotional human relationships, in which each person attempts to sincerely communicate with others both verbally and non-verbally, are of utmost importance. In this case, the psychotherapist serves as a “mirror” and “catalyst”, with the help of which the patient explores his inner world and realizes his latent abilities for self-development. For example, the basis of Rogers C. R.'s client-centered psychotherapy is the positive belief that every organism has an innate tendency to develop its optimal abilities as long as it is in an optimal environment.
Representatives of the existential-humanistic movement use such broad concepts as self-determination, creativity, authenticity, and a methodology that strives for maximum integration of the mind, body and soul of a person in the absence or violation of his integrity. Pathology is understood as a decrease in opportunities for self-expression, as a result of blocking, suppression of internal experiences or loss of correspondence to them. The neurotic personality is seen as suffering from repression and fragmentation, and neurosis is seen as the basic, universal, despairing result of the individual's alienation from himself, his society (or the world).
In the existential-humanistic direction in psychotherapy, 3 main approaches can be distinguished:
1. A philosophical approach that uses existential principles as the basis for psychotherapy. In the process of mutual dialogue or meeting (“here and now”), verbal psychotherapy (for example, client-centered therapy and logotherapy) is carried out.
2. Somatic approach, which is based on the use of non-verbal methods leading to the integration of the “I” by focusing on subjective bodily stimuli and sensory responses (for example, Gestalt therapy), and / or physical, motor methods of intense response and emotional “flooding” , in which the emphasis is on bodily stimulation and the release of feelings (for example, Lowen's bioenergetic analysis and Yanov's primal therapy).
3. A spiritual approach, in the center of which is the final affirmation of the “I” as a transcendental or transpersonal experience, the expansion of human experience to the cosmic level, which ultimately, according to representatives of this approach, leads to the unification of man with the Universe (transpersonal psychology).
Psychotherapy of this kind is about awakening or evoking the life hidden inside the client, the inner sensitivity that he has been taught to suppress, the possibilities of being that have been too rarely realized.
...We are living beings, and therefore, to a certain extent, we are all existentialists.
(J. Bugental, R. Kleiner)
The existential-humanistic approach is not a simple one. The difficulties begin from the name itself. To understand this, a little history.
It is important to note that the influence of existentialism on psychology was not limited to the emergence of the existential direction itself - many psychological schools assimilated these ideas to one degree or another. Existential motives are especially strong in K. Horney, S.L. Rubinstein and others. This allows us to talk about a whole family of existential-oriented approaches and distinguish between existential psychology (therapy) in a broad and narrow sense. In the latter case, the existential view of a person acts as a well-recognized and consistently implemented principled position. Initially, this actual existential direction (in the narrow sense) was called existential-phenomenological or existential-analytical and was a purely European phenomenon. But after World War II, the existential approach became widespread in the United States. Moreover, there, among its most prominent representatives were some of the leaders of the third, humanistic revolution in psychology (which, in turn, was largely based on the ideas of existentialism): Rollo MAY, etc.
Apparently, this is why some of them, in particular J. BUDGENTAL, prefer to talk about the existential-humanistic approach. It seems that such a union is quite justified and has a deep meaning. Existentialism and humanism are certainly not the same thing; and the name existential-humanistic captures not only their non-identity, but also their fundamental commonality, which consists, first of all, in recognizing a person’s freedom to build his life and the ability to do this.
Recently, a section of existential-humanistic therapy was created at the St. Petersburg Association of Training and Psychotherapy. It would be more accurate to say that a group of psychologists and therapists, who have actually been working in this direction since 1992, received official status, when in Moscow, within the framework of the International Conference on Humanistic Psychology, we met with Deborah RAHILLY, a student and follower of J. Budgetal. Then Deborah and her colleagues Robert Nader, Padma Katell, Lanir Clancey and others conducted a study during 1992 - 1995. in St. Petersburg 3 training seminars on EGP. In between the seminars, the group discussed the experience gained, the main ideas and methodological aspects of work in this direction. Thus, as the basic (but not the only) section of existential-humanistic therapy, the approach of J. Budgetal was chosen, the main provisions of which are as follows. (But first, a few words about our long-standing problem: what should we call them? Many famous foreign psychologists in Russian transcription not only receive a very unique interpretation, for example, one of the most prominent psychologists of the twentieth century is known in our country as, although, if you look at the root, then he is Abram Maslov, and if in the dictionary, then Abraham Maslow, - but they acquire several names at once, for example, Ronald LAING, aka LANG. It is especially unlucky - he is called in three or more variants, I think it is best to pronounce him as; he does it himself - BUDGENTAL.)
So, the most important provisions of J. Budgetal's approach, which he himself calls life-changing therapy.
- Behind any particular psychological difficulties in a person’s life lie deeper (and not always clearly recognized) existential problems: freedom of choice and responsibility, isolation and interconnectedness with other people, the search for the meaning of life and answers to the questions What am I? What is this world? etc. In the existential-humanistic approach, the therapist displays a special existential ear, allowing him to grasp these hidden existential problems and appeals behind the façade of the client’s stated problems and complaints. This is the essence of life-changing therapy: the client and the therapist work together to help the former understand the way he has answered existential questions in his life, and to reconsider some of the answers in a way that makes the client's life more authentic and more fulfilling.
- The existential-humanistic approach is based on the recognition of the humanity in each person and the initial respect for his uniqueness and autonomy. This also means the therapist’s awareness that a person, in the depths of his essence, is ruthlessly unpredictable and cannot be fully known, since he himself can act as a source of changes in his own being, destroying objective predictions and expected results.
- The focus of a therapist working in an existential-humanistic approach is human subjectivity, that, as J. Budgetal says, the internal autonomous and intimate reality in which we live most sincerely. Subjectivity is our experiences, aspirations, thoughts, anxieties... everything that happens inside us and determines what we do outside, and most importantly, what we make of what happens to us there. The client's subjectivity is the main place of application of the therapist's efforts, and his own subjectivity is the main means of helping the client.
- Without denying the great importance of the past and the future, the existential-humanistic approach assigns the leading role to work in the present with what at the moment really lives in human subjectivity, what is relevant here and now. It is in the process of directly living, including events of the past or future, that existential problems can be heard and fully understood.
- The existential-humanistic approach sets rather a certain direction, a locus of understanding by the therapist of what is happening in therapy, rather than a certain set of techniques and prescriptions. In relation to any situation, you can take (or not take) an existential position. Therefore, this approach is distinguished by the amazing variety and richness of the psychotechniques used, including even such seemingly non-therapeutic actions as advice, demand, instruction, etc. Budgetal’s position: under certain conditions, almost any action can lead the client to intensify work with subjectivity; The art of the therapist lies precisely in the ability to adequately apply the entire rich arsenal without resorting to manipulation. It was for the development of this art of psychotherapist that Budgetal described 13 main parameters of therapeutic work and developed a methodology for the development of each of them. In my opinion, other approaches can hardly boast of such depth and thoroughness in developing a program for expanding the subjective capabilities of the therapist.
