Approximately, in the sixth century BC, a separate science appeared - philosophy, due to difficult to explain and mysterious circumstances, which arose at the same time in different and opposite places of the continent - Ancient Greece, India and Ancient China. Ottole develops human nirvas through a different explanation of mythological concepts about cultures. This period of development of philosophical teachings, in these centers of civilizations, forms the latest history and another interpretation of mythology, a rethinking of past attitudes of values ​​and thoughts.

Philosophy in India laid the foundation for the emergence of philosophical Indian knowledge that arose before our era in the middle of the 1st millennium. The initial "steps" of man in an attempt to comprehend himself, the surrounding world and outer space, living and inanimate nature, led to progress in the development of the human mind, awareness and reason, contributed to evolution and differentiation with nature.

Understanding the connection between general culture and the circumstances and events of the past era lies in the very essence of philosophy. The play of the mind that thinks in abstract concepts and the spiritual power of rational-conceptual comprehension of the root causes of all that exists, which exerts a global influence on the world course of events, is philosophy.

Taking part in the formation of social ideals, value-world outlook and methodological principles, philosophy reminds a person of the social and practical importance of common ideas about the world, posing a question to the thinker about the moral principles of being. Oriental philosophical teachings of India and China, similar in spirit, had common points and significant differences that had an important impact on the development of the cultures of India and China, as well as the peoples in contact with them.

A brief summary of ancient Indian philosophy will tell about many events of the era, about the interests and faith of other peoples, giving an excellent chance to enrich your own horizons. The foundation of Indian philosophy is occupied by the scriptures - the Vedas and Upanishads (notes) to the Vedas. In Indo-Aryan oriental culture, these texts represent the oldest monument of knowledge and teachings accumulated for all times. There are assumptions that the Vedas were not created by anyone, but always existed as truth, due to which the scriptures did not contain erroneous information. Most of them are composed in Sanskrit - a mystical and perfect language. It is believed that with the help of Sanskrit, the universe comes into contact with a person, showing the way to God. Cosmic truths are presented in the partial records of the Vedas. The adapted part of the Smriti scriptures, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, is recommended for people who are not so gifted, such as workers, women and members of the lower castes, while the other part of the Vedas, Srudi, is within the power of initiates.

Vedic period of Indian philosophy

The key source of information about the Vedic stage is the Vedas (translated from Sanskrit "Veda" - "knowledge", "teaching" or "knowledge").

The philosophy of Ancient India includes three stages:

1. Vedic - 15 - 5 centuries BC;
2. Classic - 5-10th centuries BC;
3. Hindu - from the 10th century BC.

But in this article you will learn about the Vedic period, the most significant and absolute. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has continuously taken root and shaped the values ​​of society. According to established traditions, the Vedas include four collections of Vedic literature, later overgrown with explanations and additions to the ritual, magical and philosophical orders (prayers, magic spells, hymns and chants):

1. Samhitas;
2. Brahmanas;
3. "Aranyaki";
4. Upanishads.

The gods differed from people in omniscience, according to the Vedas, therefore knowledge was "recognized" and "seen" because it was endowed with a visual nature. This division reflects the historical sequence of the development of Indian literature. The oldest collection is the "Samhita", while the last three collections are the following explanation, commentaries on the Vedas and their additions. As a result, in the subtle literary sense "Samhita" is the Veda. Thus, the Samhitas include 4 original hymns: Rig Veda (authoritarian knowledge), Samaveda (Veda of chants), Yajurveda (scriptures about sacrifices) and Atharva Veda (knowledge of magic spells), borrowing texts from the Rig Veda. Scientists studying Indian philosophical teachings believe that at the time of the formation of the Indian Vedas, society was divided into classes throughout the valley of the majestic Ganges River, but this could not be called slavery. The social difference between people only increased social inequality, and laid the foundation for the organization of varnas or castes (differences in position in society, privileges and roles): brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras. The brahmanas were priests; The Kshatriyas - by the warriors of the highest social castes; Vaisyas - were artisans, farmers and merchants; Shudras - represented the lowest estates - servants and hired workers. Following, the Indian state arose. The deepest reflection in the philosophical views of ancient India was reflected in the Upanishads.

Upanishads

The main philosophical part of the Vedas is the Upanishads. The literal translation from Sanskrit "upa-ni-shad" means "sitting at the teacher's feet." The Upanishads are secret teachings that cannot be publicized by a large number of people. The text contained in the Upanishads is an exposition of heterogeneous philosophical reflections, in which one can emphasize a number of issues: adhyajna (sacrifice), adhyatma (human microcosm) and adhidaivata (deified macrocosm); questions: "What is the position of the sun at night?", "Where are the stars during the day?" and others. In the Upanishads, the central element is the parallels between the phenomena of the micro- and macrocosm, the idea of ​​the unity of the existing. The hidden and deep foundations of the "Atman" microcosm and the "Brahman" macrocosm are clarified, the study of conditioning and expressions. The basis of the Upanishads is generated by the external and internal sides of being, surrounding with attention the human comprehension of knowledge and moral improvement, posing the characteristic questions of the Upanishads - "Who are we, where did we come from and where are we going?" The essence of being in the Upanishads denotes "Brahman" - the beginning of everything spiritual, the universal and faceless soul of the universe, which revives the universe. "Brahman" is identical, but opposite to "Atman" - the individual principle of the spiritual "I". Brahman is the highest objective principle, while Atman is subjective and spiritual. There is a dharma connection here about Sansara and Karma - about the cycle of life, eternal rebirth and the rule of compensation. Understanding of the future of a person occurs through awareness of their way of behavior and actions committed in previous lives. Therefore, leading a decent lifestyle personifies the future and new birth in the higher castes or withdrawal to the spiritual world. For unrighteous behavior in the current life, it leads to future incarnations in the lower classes, and "Atman" can be reborn into the body of an animal. The main task of the Upanishads is moksha or liberation from material wealth and spiritual self-improvement. Each person is the "blacksmith" of his own happiness and his destiny is formed by real actions - this is the philosophy of the Upanishads.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

The whole philosophy of India is based on systems. In the sixth century BC, the beginning of the emergence of philosophical schools was laid. Schools were divided into:

• Astika are orthodox schools based on the authority of the Vedas. These included the schools of Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaisesika;
• "Nastika" are unorthodox schools that refute the treatises of the Vedas for being false. These included schools: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka Lokayata.

Consider briefly each of the Orthodox schools:

1. Mimansa or Purva-mimansa (the first) - was founded by the ancient Indian sage Jaimini (3-1 century BC) and included: research, analysis, interpretation and reflection on the scriptures;
2. Vedanta - compiled by the sage Vyasa (about 5 thousand years ago), the main goal relied on self-awareness, the individual's understanding of his original nature and truth;
3. Yoga - founded by the sage Patanjali (in the 2nd century BC), aimed at improving the human spirit, through the practice of uniting body and mind, with subsequent liberation (moksha);
4. Sankhya - founded by the sage Kapila, the school is aimed at distracting the spirit (purusha) from matter (prakriti);
5. Nyaya - and the laws of logic, according to which the external world exists independently of cognition and reason. Objects of cognition: our "I", body, senses, mind, rebirth, suffering and liberation;
6. Vaisesika - founded by the sage Kanada (Uluka) (3-2 centuries BC), who is at the same time an opponent and adherent of Buddhist phenomenalism. Recognizing Buddhism as a source of knowledge and perception, but refuting the truth of the facts of soul and substance.

Consider briefly each of the unorthodox schools:

1. Jainism - in translation from Sanskrit "winner", a dharmic religion, the founder of the teachings of which is Jina Mahavira (8-6 centuries BC). The philosophy of the school is based on the self-improvement of the soul to achieve nirvana;
2. Buddhism - formed in the 5-1 centuries BC, the teaching of the school assumed 4 truths: 1 - life is like suffering, 2 - the reasons for which are desires and passions, 3 - deliverance comes only after giving up desires, 4 - through a series of rebirths and getting rid of the bonds of Samsara;
3. Charvaka Lokayata is a materialistic atheistic teaching and a low view. The universe and everything that exists arose naturally, without the interference of otherworldly forces, thanks to 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air.

According to various sources of philosophical thought, known both in antiquity and in the modern era in ancient Indian philosophy there are three main stages:

• XV - VI centuries. BC NS. - Vedic period(period of orthodox philosophy of Hinduism);
• VI - II centuries. BC NS. - epic period(the epics "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" are created, in which many philosophical problems of the era are touched upon, Buddhism and Jainism appear);
• II century. BC NS. - VII century. n. NS. - sutra era, i.e. short philosophical treatises that address specific problems (for example, "nama-sutra", etc.).

In the work of S. Chatterjee and D. Dutt "Indian Philosophy" are listed following signs characterizing Indian philosophy in general:

• the practical orientation of philosophy, which does not serve idle curiosity, but has the goal of improving human life;
• the source of philosophy is anxiety for a person, which manifests itself in the desire to warn a person against mistakes that lead to suffering, although the entire Indian philosophy is literally saturated with skepticism and pessimism about this;
• belief in "rita" - the eternal moral world order that exists in the universe;
• understanding the universe as an arena for moral deeds;
• the idea of ​​ignorance as the source of all human suffering, and the idea that only knowledge can be a condition for a person's salvation;
• the idea of ​​prolonged conscious concentration as the source of any knowledge;
• awareness of the need for self-control and submission of passions to reason, which are considered the only way to salvation;
• belief in the possibility of liberation.

The main categories of philosophy of ancient India

The main source of ancient Indian philosophy is considered Veda(ie "knowledge") - sacred books written approximately in the XV-VI centuries. BC.

• Rigveda - books of hymns;
• Samaveda - books of chants;
• Yajurveda - books of sacrificial formulas;
• Atharva Veda are books of spells.

In addition to religious hymns ("samhit"), the Vedas also include descriptions of rituals ("brahmanas"), books of forest hermits ("aranyaki") and philosophical commentaries on the Vedas ("Upanishads", literally - "at the feet of the teacher"), representing from the point of view of philosophy, the greatest interest.

Rice. Periods and main categories of philosophy of ancient India

The foundation of the world is Rita - the law of universal interconnection and sequence of all processes; the cosmic law of evolution and order, as well as the ethical law of all living beings. Rita is substantial in relation to the world.

The impersonal spiritual nature of the world Purusha- "the first man", who emerged from chaos; Purusha is an intermediate stage between chaos and the material world, his eyes became the Sun and the Moon, the breath generated the wind, the world arose from his body. Also, Purusha is the primary energy, pure consciousness, in contrast to prakrits - material consciousness.

Brahma-Cosmos - God, who creates the world, whose exhalation and inhalation are associated with being and non-being, and alternating life and death, lasting for 100 years of Brahma (billions of earthly years), with absolute being and absolute non-being.

Samsara(Skt. samsara - rebirth, circulation, wandering. passing through something) - the suffering process of countless rebirths of the personality and the immortal soul, this movement into various bodies - plants, animals, people. This concept means worldly existence, the interconnection of all living things. The goal of a person is to get out of this series of rebirths, ending suffering.

Karma- the law of fate that predetermines human life. Karma leads a person through trials, perfecting the soul to the level of moksha (the highest moral level of development of the soul; such a soul is called mahatma). But karma can be influenced by your actions, the nature of which "improves" or "worsens" it. Bad deeds lead to troubles in the future, good ones create favorable conditions for a person and, in general, have a positive effect even on the Cosmos. The fact is that everything in the world is interconnected, any event has consequences.

Atman- a particle of Brahma-Tvoria. the divine unchanging component of the human soul. Another component of the soul - manas, this part arises in the process of life, it is subject to changes (both positive and negative) as a result of obtaining this or that experience.

The Vedas are universal knowledge characteristic of most of the teachings of the Ancient World that have come down to us. The Vedas contain many ideas of a socio-ethical and normative nature.

The Vedas influenced the entire Indian philosophy, the first schools of which appeared in the period from about the 7th to the 1st century. BC. Some of these schools recognized the Vedas as sacred books; these schools are called orthodox: sankhya, yoga, vedanta, vaisesika, mimamsa, nyaya. Other schools did not consider the Vedas sacred (although they could not completely avoid their cultural influence), relying on other sources; the most famous unorthodox schools - , Jainism, charvaka. The views of representatives of some philosophical schools of ancient India had a lot in common, but much differed in their positions.

Vedanta

Vedanta(Skt. - the end or goal of the Vedas) denotes the totality of religious and philosophical schools and teachings of Indian philosophy, which are based on the concept of "brahmapa-atman".

In the concept of "Vedanta" sometimes all the traditional orthodox schools of philosophy of ancient India are united. However, later, in the second half of the 1st millennium AD, an independent Vedanta school was formed. In this teaching, in particular, the question of the identity of the primary absolute-brahman (cosmic soul) and the individual soul of the subject knowing him - atman is solved. Different currents of Vedanta solve it in different ways. In one case, Brahman is identical with "I"; in the other, I am a part of Brahman; in the third, "I" is only determined by Brahman.

According to some researchers, Vedanta is considered the most significant and influential philosophical teaching of ancient India; this doctrine is the philosophical basis of Hinduism - one of the most widespread.

Sapkhya

Sankhya(Skt. - number, enumeration, calculation) - one of the most ancient philosophical schools; its founder is tricky Kapila, who lived in the 7th century. BC.

According to this teaching, there are two principles at the basis of reality: the ideal is purusha, and the material is prakriti. Both principles are uncreate and indestructible. Prakriti consists of three gunas (sattva, rajas, tamas), which a person does not perceive, but is exposed to them through the objective material world. The sapkhya denies faith in God, due to the unprovability of his existence and the possibility of explaining the origin of the world without resorting to the concept of God.

One of the main problems of teaching is understanding the causal relationship; those who share the Samkhya ideas are convinced that the effect is contained in the cause even before it arises.

Man, due to his ignorance, binds his soul, his “I” with the body; he mistakenly perceives the suffering of the body as his own. Therefore, a person should strive for liberation through the comprehension of the truth.

Yoga

Yoga(Skt. - participation, unity, concentration, order, deep reflection), first of all, is known for a deeply developed system of exercises with the help of which a person reaches a special state when he is freed from the material world, his soul is able to merge with the purusa, "I" a person - with a higher "I".

This system of exercises has been used by many other Indian teachings as an element of their systems.

According to philosophical views, yoga largely repeats Samkhya, but, unlike the latter, it affirms the existence of God as the supreme "I". Yoga proceeds from the fact that the microcosm - the human soul in many respects repeats the cosmic body of the Universe. A person's conscious striving to improve himself can find some kind of correspondence among cosmic processes; one must strive to master the ability to change oneself.

Basic concepts and actions of yoga: submission of the body - yama (control of breathing, temperature, cardiovascular activity, etc.); body position fixed in a certain figure - asana; contemplation of a definite real or conceivable object - ohavana; a state of trance (a sharp change in the mental and emotional state) - dhyana; a special concentrated state of the psyche, in which it acquires the irreversibility of mental processes - samadhi.

Charvaka - Lokayata

Lokayata(Skt. - aimed only at this world. which is in circulation among the people) - which arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. an ancient Indian materialistic system that does not recognize the sacredness of the Vedas.

Charvaka (translated as "materialist", an intelligible word) is one of the later varieties of lokayata.

Charvaka explains the world as the interaction of four elements: earth, water, fire and air. As a result of their combination in various proportions, all things of the material world, including souls, arise. This position is substantiated by the fact that a person with his senses does not perceive anything except matter. That is, consciousness is a property of matter; except for her there is nothing in the world. Therefore, it makes no sense to perform religious rituals.

Buddhism

Teaching based Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni(563-483 BC), which was named Buddha, which means "one who has comprehended the truth", "enlightened".

Gautama was a prince from the Sakya clan, the son of Raja (monarch, king) Shuddhodhan of Kapilavastu (a city in the north of Ancient India), grew up a happy man, married for love, and had a son. But one day, when he met a sick, old man outside the palace, funeral procession, he faced, thereby, with disease, old age, death and realized the imperfection of the world, full of suffering. After that, having met a hermit, he also decided to become a hermit in order to change his destiny, to find a way to overcome suffering.

After seven years of wandering, Gautama (becoming a Bodhisattva - "destined for enlightenment") realized that the path of an ascetic does not lead to the elimination of suffering, but after much thought he "received his sight", comprehended the truth and became a Buddha (it is believed that this happened in 527 BC). .NS.). After that he traveled a lot, preaching his doctrine; he had many disciples and followers of his work, who, after the death of Buddha, discussed and systematized the legacy of the teacher.

The main idea of ​​the teaching is to free a person from suffering "for which he needs to achieve nirvana - a state of supreme bliss.

Buddha contemplated four noble truths:

• life is full of suffering;
• the causes of suffering are the thirst for fame, pleasure, profit and life itself;
• you can get rid of suffering;
• liberation comes with the rejection of earthly desires, enlightenment, nirvana comes.

To enlightenment leads the "middle path" - a life that excludes extremes: "the path of pleasure" - entertainment, idleness, laziness, physical and moral decay and "the path of asceticism" - mortification of the flesh, deprivation, suffering, physical and moral exhaustion. The "middle path" presupposes knowledge, reasonable self-restraint, self-improvement, contemplation, wisdom and, finally, enlightenment.

For this, it is necessary to observe the five commandments - Thou shalt not kill: Thou shalt not steal; be chaste; do not lie; do not use intoxicating and intoxicating substances; and also eight principles (octal path):

• correct vision- understanding of the four noble truths and your path in life;
• correct intentions - firm determination to change your life;
• correct speech- avoid lies, rude and vulgar words (words affect the soul);
• correct action- not inflicting harm on anyone, agreement with oneself and others;
• correct lifestyle- honesty in everything, adherence to Buddhist commandments;
• correct skill- diligence and hard work;
• correct attention- control over thoughts, they affect future life;
• correct concentration- meditations, during which communication with space is carried out.

The ontological idea seems to be important dharm. Dharmas are groups of generating elements: 1) bodily forms, 2) sensations, 3) concepts, 4) imprints of karma, 5) consciousness.

They do not exist separately from each other, but in various combinations with each other make up the whole idea of ​​a person about himself and the world around him. The whole life of a person is nothing more than a continuous stream of dharmas. The constant change in their ratios forms the constantly changing sensations, impressions and thoughts of a person. Each thing arises as a result of the functioning or interaction of other things, and having arisen, it itself exerts an influence on them, participates in the emergence of new things; those. we are talking about the fundamental variability of being (there is nothing constant and stable), about general relativity, and also about the fact that the material world is just an illusion.

In the 1st century. before the era split into two streams - hinayana("Narrow path of salvation", "small chariot" - assumes personal salvation, monastic way of life) and mahayana("Wide path of salvation", "great chariot" - accessible to many people). Later, several other directions appeared in Buddhism. The doctrine became widespread in India and especially (after the 3rd century AD) in China, Southeast Asia, and also in other regions.

1) Veda (Skt. Véda - "knowledge", "teaching") - a collection of ancient (25 thousand years BC) sacred scriptures of Hinduism in Sanskrit according to the Shruti method (from what he heard).

2) Structure (the Vedas were divided by the ancient Indian poet and sage Vyasa)

1. Samhitas (religious chants about rituals)

2. Brahmanas (books written by the servants of Brahma)

3. Aranyaki (forest texts of hermits' songs)

4. Upanishads (the main essence of the Vedas (the concept of Brahman and the individual soul - Atman) is stated - therefore they are also called "Vedanta" (the end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism)

Types of Upanishads: classical (VII century BC) and false (non-classical)

3) Key ideas

The idea of ​​the absolute (the beginning of existence).

"The Absolute is Brahman":

Brahman is a living being, the father of all that exists, in its highest manifestations appears as a kind of universal Atman (immortal soul)

Thought (reflection)

Prana (breath, energy)

Brahman created everything from himself .

Everything that exists contains Brahman (pantheism)

Life is eternal, because its source is Brahman.

The idea of ​​God.

· God is the first-born (born by Brahma). Gods n. Asuras (negative) and Devas (positive)

· The gods did not possess immortality at first. Immortality is an acquired quality as a result of evolution (the life of the Gods is cosmic cycles), after the creation of the drink of immortality "Sacred Amrita"

3. The idea of ​​the immortality of the individual soul (Atman).

Atman is not born or dies

There is no death - life is endless

4. The idea of ​​eternity and the cycle of life (like the wheel of Samsara).

· Death as a change of life form.

Cycle: heavenly water, atma, earthly water (mortal)

5. The idea of ​​karma ("kar" in this case is action).

· The basis on the universality of relations, the laws of cause and effect.

· Thought is the main determinant of karma. “As our thoughts are, so we become” - Upanishad.

· Every phenomenon has its causes and consequences. According to the law of karma, the consequences return to the one who performs the action.

Karma is inevitable, not identified with fate.

6. The idea of ​​many inhabited worlds that we can acquire according to the law of karma.

Material (lower)

Spiritual (supreme)

7. The idea of ​​a righteous path leading to merging with the absolute (Brahma) (yoga).

Yoga is the path of merging the individual soul with the deity, attaining Brahma, entering the path of immortality, attaining a higher state in which the senses, thought, reason are inactive, a person is concentrated.

4) Classification of schools

1. Orthodox(the only, unconditional authority of the Vedas as the source of the highest knowledge)

· Sankhya

Essence: there are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Sankhya philosophy is to distract spirit from matter.

· Yoga

Essence: the goal is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion, and achieve liberation.

· Mimansa (early)

Essence: the goal is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not available for reasoning or observation.

· Mimansa (late) = Vedanta

Essence: mainly focused on self-awareness - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman.

· Nyaya

Essence: considers mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. Recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and proof.

· Vaisesika

The bottom line: while recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and logical inference, Vaisesika at the same time believes that souls and substances are immutable facts. She does not associate herself with theological problems.

2. Unorthodox(besides the Vedas, other sources of knowledge)

· Buddhism

Essence: Buddha came to the conclusion that the cause of people's suffering is their own actions and to stop suffering, to achieve nirvana, you can practice self-restraint and meditation.

Four Noble Truths:

About suffering (throughout life)

The cause of suffering (the desire to satisfy needs)

Ending suffering (giving up desires)

Middle way

· Jainism

Essence: Calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control. The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception, perfect knowledge and perfect behavior, known as the "three jewels of Jainism", are the path to freeing the human soul from samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

· Lokayata (Charvaka)

The bottom line: the universe and everything that exists happened naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces. There are four elements: earth, water, fire and air. They are eternal and are the fundamental principle of all that exists.

Ticket 6: Philosophy of Ancient China: Essentials
philosophical ideas and schools.

Ancient Chinese philosophy emerged and developed from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC. The Zhanguo period in the history of ancient China is often called the "golden age of Chinese philosophy." It was during this period that concepts and categories were born, which would then become traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

Taoist ideas

The main idea of ​​Taoism is the statement that everything obeys Tao, everything arises from Tao and everything returns to Tao. Tao is the universal Law and the Absolute. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To cognize Tao, follow it, merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao is manifested through its emanation - de. If a person cognizes Tao, follows it, then he will achieve immortality. This requires:

Ø Firstly, the nourishment of the spirit: a person is an accumulation of numerous spirits - divine forces, to which the heavenly spirits corresponded. Heavenly spirits keep track of the good and evil deeds of a person and determine the length of his life. Thus, nourishing the spirit is doing virtuous deeds.

Ø Secondly, it is necessary to nourish the body: adherence to the strictest diet (the ideal was the ability to feed on one's own saliva and inhale the ether of dew), physical and breathing exercises, sexual practice.

This path to immortality was long and difficult, not accessible to every person. Therefore, there is a desire to simplify it by creating a miraculous elixir of immortality. This was especially needed by the emperors and representatives of the nobility. The first emperor who wished to achieve immortality with the help of the elixir was the famous Qin-shih-huangdi, who sent expeditions to distant countries to find the components necessary for the elixir.

Philosophical schools

1. Taoism - the universe is a source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from plants to humans, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves people alone. Representatives of this period: Lao-tzu, Le-tzu, Chuang-tzu, Yang Zhu; Wen Tzu, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan.

2. Confucianism (zhujia) - the ruler and his officials should govern the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms and regulation of the administration of a despotic centralized state were studied. Representatives: Confucius, Tseng-tzu, TzuSy, YuZho, Tzu-gao, Meng-tzu, Xun-tzu.

3. Moism (mojia) - the meaning of the teaching was in the ideas of universal love (jian ai) and prosperity, everyone should be concerned about mutual benefit. Representatives: Mo-Tzu, QinHuali, Meng Sheng, Tien Xiang-tzu, Fu Dun.

4. Legism - dealt with the problems of social theory and government controlled... The idea of ​​universal equality. Representatives: Shen Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shangyang, Han Feizi; Shen Dao is often referred to as well.

5. School of names (mingjia) - the discrepancy between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-gun.

6. School "yin-yang" (yingyangjia) (natural philosophers). Yin is a heavy, dark, earthly, feminine principle. Yang is a light, bright, heavenly, masculine principle. Their harmony is a condition for the normal existence of the world, and imbalance leads to natural disasters. Representatives: Tzu-wei, Zouyan, ZhangTsang.

Ticket 7: Teaching about Tao, Te, and Wu Wei.

The Tao Te Ching is a fundamental treatise in the philosophy of Taoism. Most modern researchers date the "Tao-te-ching" to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. The authorship is attributed to Lao Tzu (Li Er, Li Dan, Li Bo-Yan) - lived at the end of the 7th - first half of the 6th century. BC. (according to some sources, the date of birth is 604 BC). He was a princely official, in charge of the archive.

DAO: Tao is the "way", the essence of all things and the total existence of the universe.

Tao incorporeal and does not lend itself to sensory perception, it is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless, infinite and eternal, empty, but inexhaustible. It is the progenitor of everything, including the gods.

Tao (by synopsis) is the natural way, the law of all things.

DE: On the one hand, Te is what feeds Tao, makes it possible (a variant from the opposite: Tao feeds Te, Tao - unlimited, Te - is defined). This is a kind of universal force, a principle with the help of which the Tao-way of things can take place.

Te is the art of correctly disposing of vital energy, correct behavior. But Te is not morality in the narrow sense. Te goes beyond common sense, prompting a person to release life force from the path of everyday life.

Te (according to the outline) - that which nourishes and educates the universal qualities, attributes of Tao.

Lao Tzu o te

"To create and educate what exists; creating, not to possess what has been created; setting in motion, not to make efforts; leading, not to consider oneself a master - this is what is called the deepest Te."

"A person with a higher Te does not strive to do good deeds, therefore he is virtuous; a person with a lower Te does not abandon the intention to do good deeds, therefore he is not virtuous; a person with a higher Te is inactive and carries out inaction; a person with a lower Te is active and his actions are deliberate ".

"Te appears only after the loss of Tao; philanthropy - after the loss of Te."

WU-WEI: Wu-Wei - contemplative passivity. This word is often translated as "non-action." The most important quality of non-action is the absence of reasons for action. There is no reflection, no calculation, no desire. There are no intermediate steps at all between the inner nature of man and his action in the world. The action takes place suddenly and, as a rule, reaches the goal in the shortest way, since it relies on perception of the here and now. Such a world is typical only for enlightened people, whose mind is soft, disciplined and completely subordinated to the deep nature of man.

According to Lao Tzu, “if someone wants to take possession of the world and manipulates it, he will fail. For the world is a sacred vessel that cannot be manipulated. If anyone wants to manipulate him, he will destroy him. If anyone wants to take it, he will lose it. "

Wu Wei is not a complete renunciation of action. This is a refusal of emotional involvement in the action, and only as a consequence - the minimization of the actions performed.

Ticket 8: Ancient Philosophy: Features
development and basic schools.

Ancient philosophy emerged in the 7th - 8th centuries. BC. during the formation of a slave society. It arises and develops in large economic centers and city-states located at the intersection of important trade routes.

Ancient philosophy arises on the basis of intensive processing of mythological ideas about the world and man.

The mythological concept and the religious concept associated with it is gradually giving way to philosophy, which is characterized by the desire for a rational theoretical background positive knowledge possessed by the first philosophers (Babylon, Dr. Egypt).

The main methods of this philosophy are observation and reflection on the results of observations in nature.

Three stages in the development of ancient philosophy:

Ø Early period (Before Socratic) (VII-first half of the V century BC) - Pythagorean, Miletus, Eleian schools, the school of ancient dialectics (Heraclitus)

Ø Classical period (V - IV centuries BC) - Schools of Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Plato, schools of sophists and atomists

Ø The era of Hellenism (IV century BC - 528 BC) - Eclecticism, Skepticism, Philosophy of Epicurus, Skepticism, Hedonism.

Description of schools:

1. Pythagorean. Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus. Everything is like a number and can be expressed mathematically. The celestial spheres revolve around the Central Fire.

2. Eleyskaya. Parmenides, Zeno, Meliss. The focus is on being. Only it exists - there is no nonexistence at all. Thinking and being are one and the same. Being fills everything, it has nowhere to move and it is impossible to share.

3. Milesian. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes. On the basis of the position "something does not arise from nothing" (modern. Law of conservation), assumed the existence of a certain fundamental principle of everything. Thales called it water, Anaximenes called air, and Anaximander called it apeiron. The Milesians assumed that the world is animate, there is a soul in everything, there is simply more of it in the “animate”, and less in the “inanimate”, but it permeates everything.

4. School of Heraclitus. Heraclitus of Ephesus did not have direct disciples, but there were many followers at all times. He considered the world to be an eternally moving product of fire (his phrase - "everything flows, everything changes"), and the struggle and war of opposites - the cause of any change. Heraclitus was called Gloomy for the gloom of his views, a vision in all of the war.

5. School of Aristotle. The soul is the entelechy of the body (entelechy is the inner strength that contains the ultimate goal and result). The first cause of movement is God.

6. School of Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras proclaimed that small "seeds" are the basis of everything (Aristotle later called them "homeomerism"). There are countless types of them, and a certain global Mind orders them into the bodies of the visible world. Interestingly, Anaxagoras tried to explain phenomena like eclipses and earthquakes by natural causes, and for this he was convicted of insulting the gods and sentenced to death, but escaped through the efforts of his friend and disciple Pericles.

7. School of Empedocles. Empedocles believed that the world is based on four elements - fire, water, air and earth, and everything is obtained by mixing these elements, or "roots". In particular, bone is made up of two parts of water, two parts of earth, and four parts of fire. But the “roots” are passive principles, and active principles are Love and Hate, the interaction and correlation of which determines all changes.

8. School of Plato. Plato believed the soul to be immortal, in contrast to the body, and identified three principles in it: Reasonable, Volitional and Passionate. He considered the main method of philosophy to be dialectics (in the sense of a constructive argument).

9. School of the Sophists. Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodic and others. Representatives of the school had different moral and political views. They were united by the idea that any thing can be described in different ways, a tendency to a philosophical play on words and the creation of paradoxes, the belief that everything is relative, nothing is absolute, and a person is the measure of all things. Many were atheists and agnostics.

10. School of atomists. Leucippus stood at the origins of the school of atomists, his teaching was developed by Democritus. This amazing sage said that all bodies are composed of the smallest particles - atoms, between which there is a void. He also meant the presence of a soul in a person, which is also a set of special atoms and is mortal with the body. "Only in general opinion there is color, in opinion - sweet, in opinion - bitter, in reality there are only atoms and emptiness."

11. Eclecticism. Its representatives, Cicero, Varro and others, tried to create a perfect philosophical system based on a combination of existing systems, choosing from them the most reasonable, in their opinion, conclusions. In a way, the general acceptance of such a combinative system marks the decline of philosophical thought.

12. Stoicism. Teachings of Zeno of Kitis (not that in Eleyskaya, another). The doctrine of predestination, which must be followed, suppressing passions in oneself. Pleasure, disgust, lust and fear must be rejected. The Stoic ideal is an imperturbable sage. The school included stars such as Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher emperor.

13. Skepticism. Pyrrho, Enisidem. The skeptics teach that you cannot be sure of the existence of anything. And since you cannot be sure of the existence of a thing, then you need to treat it as something seeming, calmly and calmly. Ten reasons for skepticism (ten skeptical paths to Enisedem).

14. Hedonism. The teaching that the main thing in life and the highest good is pleasure.

15. Epicureanism. A special case of hedonism. "Pleasure is the highest good." This is a teaching that did not set itself the goal of finding the truth, but only the practical side of happiness. Epicurus's "fourfold medicine": not to fear the gods, not to fear death, the good is easily achievable, the evil is easily tolerated.

State educational institution

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______________________________________________

Department of Humanities

ESSAY

in the discipline "Philosophy"

on the topic "Philosophical schools of ancient India»

Completed: 1st year student
full-time study of the Faculty of Economics, group 141
O.E. Nasyrova

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INTRODUCTION 3

CONCLUSION 26

LIST OF USED SOURCES 27

INTRODUCTION

Since ancient times, a person has always strived to know and comprehend the world around him - living and inanimate nature, outer space, and finally himself. Gradually, man began to differentiate nature as a means of his habitation, gradually separating himself from it. It is precisely due to the fact that man began to perceive the animal and plant world, the cosmos as something different and opposed to him, that he began to form the ability to comprehend reality, and then philosophize, i.e. make inferences, conclusions and put forward ideas about the world around him.

Along with this, different opinions began to form on this or that issue of existence, various schools of thought began to form with their own teachings and positions. The philosophy of Ancient India is one of the most ancient. It is characterized by development within the framework of certain systems, or schools, and their division into two large groups. The first group is the orthodox philosophical schools of Ancient India, recognizing the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV-II centuries BC), Mimamsa (VI century BC), Sankhya (VI century BC). BC), Nyaya (III century BC), Yoga (II century BC), Vaisesika (VI-V century BC)). The second group - unorthodox schools that do not recognize the authority of the Vedas (Buddhism (VII-VI centuries BC), Charvaka-Lokayata, Jainism)

I believe that the chosen topic is quite interesting to study, since not everyone knows what schools in Hinduism exist. Many books have been written about the philosophical schools of ancient India, this topic is deep enough for study.

The aim of my work is to study the main philosophical and religious schools of Hinduism. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

identify what a particular school is based on;

analyze the main teachings of each school.

Orthodox philosophical schools of ancient India

Vedanta

Vedanta is one of the six orthodox schools of philosophy of ancient India, which also refers to the general name of a number of philosophical and religious traditions in Hinduism, united by a common theme, subject and fundamental texts and written commentaries on them. Initially, this name referred to the philosophical texts adjacent to the Vedas - Brahmans, Aranyaks and Upanishads, which are an explanatory and additional part of the four Vedas. Subsequently, these ancient Vedic texts served as the basis for the orthodox school of Indian philosophy, which became known as Vedanta. Vedanta is mainly devoted to the philosophical interpretation of the teachings of the Aranyak and Upanishads.

The Vedantic tradition in Hinduism interpreted the Upanishads and explained their meaning. Vedanta, like the Vedic scriptures on which it is based, mainly focuses on self-awareness, that is, the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth. Vedanta, which is understood as "ultimate knowledge" or "the end of all knowledge", is not limited to any particular text or texts, and Vedantic philosophy does not have a single source. Vedanta is based on immutable, absolute, spiritual laws that are common to most religions and spiritual traditions of the world. Vedanta, as ultimate knowledge, leads to a state of self-awareness or cosmic consciousness. Both historically and in modern contexts, Vedanta is understood as an entirely transcendental and spiritual state, and not as a concept that can be comprehended simply with the help of the material mind.

The term Vedanta is a Sanskrit compound word:

Veda = "knowledge" + anta = "end, conclusion" - "culmination of knowledge" or "application to the Vedas."

Veda = "knowledge" + anta = "the main essence", "essence", "basis", "inner meaning" - "the main essence of the Vedas."

As for the origin of this philosophical school, the time of the formation of Vedanta is unknown. According to most scholars, this happened in the post-Buddhist era (around the 3rd century BC). While the Vedic ritualistic religious process of karma-kanda continued to be practiced by the brahmanas, currents more oriented towards jnana (knowledge) also began to appear. These new philosophical and mystical movements in the Vedic religion focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual self-knowledge, rather than on ritual practices.

In early texts, the Sanskrit word Vedanta was simply used to refer to the most philosophical Vedic scriptures, the Upanishads. However, in a later period in the development of Hinduism, the word Vedanta began to be used in relation to the philosophical school that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditionally, Vedanta accepts scripture evidence, or sabda-pramana, as the most authoritative method of cognition, while sensory perception, or pratyaksha, and conclusions drawn through the logic of anumana are considered subordinate to sabda.

The Vedanta-sutras are the classic Vedantic literature. According to Hindu tradition, they were compiled by the sage Vyasa about 5000 years ago. In the Middle Ages, in the VIII century, Shankara wrote his commentary on them. The sage Vyasa made a systematization of Vedantic ideas in the Vedanta-sutras, setting forth Vedic philosophy in the form of aphorisms.

The basis of Vedanta is the philosophy of the Upanishads, in which the Absolute Truth is called Brahman. The sage Vyasa was one of the main proponents of this philosophy and the author of the Vedanta Sutras based on the Upanishads. The concept of Brahman as the Supreme Spirit or as an eternally existing, immanent and transcendental Absolute Truth, which is the divine basis of all that exists, appears as a central theme in most schools of Vedanta. The concept of a personal God or Ishvara also plays an important role, and the various Vedantic schools generally disagree on how they define the relationship between God and Brahman.

The philosophy of the Upanishads is often expressed in cryptic language, which has allowed its most varied interpretations. Throughout history, various thinkers have interpreted the philosophy of the Upanishads and other texts such as the Vedanta Sutras in their own way, mainly guided by their own understanding and the realities of their era. There are six main interpretations of these scriptures, three of which are best known both in India and abroad, these are:

Advaita Vedanta

Vishishta-advaita

The founders of advaita vedanta were Shankara and his parama guru Gaudapada, who expounded the philosophy of ajtivada. According to advaita vedanta, only Brahman is real, and the whole world is illusory. As a traveler in the forest takes a thick rope for a snake, so a man devoid of true knowledge considers the world to be real. As the only reality, Brahman has no attributes. From the illusory potency of Brahman, called maya, the material world manifests. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in material world, and only through the attainment of true knowledge of Brahman is it possible to attain liberation. When an individual tries to realize Brahman with the help of his mind, under the influence of maya, Brahman manifests itself as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. In fact, there is no difference between the individual soul jivatman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation (moksha) consists in realizing the reality of this identity (a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, liberation is ultimately achieved only through knowledge (jnana).

The founder of Visishta Advaita was Ramanuja. He argued that the jivatman is a particle similar to Brahman, but not identical to Him. The main difference between Visishta Advaita and Advaita lies in the assertion that Brahman, individual souls and matter have attributes. They are both distinct and inseparable from each other. This school proclaims bhakti, or love and devotion to God, represented in His original and supreme incarnation as Vishnu, as the path to liberation. Maya is seen as the creative potential of the Absolute.

The founder of dvaita was Madhvacarya. In two, God is fully identified with Brahman. The Personal God in His Supreme Personality as Vishnu, or as His avatara Krishna, acts as the source of impersonal Brahman. Brahman, individual souls and matter are regarded as eternal and separate elements from each other. In dwahit, bhakti is also proclaimed the path to liberation.

Dvaita-advaita philosophy was first expounded by Nimbarka. It is mainly based on the earlier emerging philosophical school of bheda-abheda, which was founded by Bhaskara. In dvaita-advaita, the jivatma is simultaneously one with Brahman and different from Him - their relationship can be seen on the one hand as dvaita, and on the other hand as advaita. In this school, Krishna is considered the original Supreme Hypostasis of God - the source of the universe and all avatars.

The founder of suddha-advaita was Vallabha. In this philosophical system, bhakti also acts as the only way to attain liberation - to attain Krishna's eternal abode in the spiritual world - the planet Goloka (literally translated as "the world of cows"; in Sanskrit the word go means "cow", and loka means "planet"). It is said that this planet, like all its inhabitants, has the nature of sat-cit-ananda and is the place where the pastimes of Krishna and His associates are eternally performed.

The founder of acintya-bheda-abheda was the Bengali religious reformer Caitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534). This concept can be translated as "incomprehensible unity and difference" in the context of the relationship of Krishna (acting as the original supreme hypostasis of God) and the individual soul (jiva), as well as in the context of the relationship of Krishna and his other manifestations and energies (such as the material world).

In acintya-bheda-abheda, the soul (jiva) is qualitatively identical to God, but quantitatively, the individual jivas are infinitely small in comparison with the unlimited Personal Absolute. The nature of such a relationship (simultaneous oneness and difference with Krishna) is incomprehensible to the human mind, but can be realized through loving devotional service to God, called bhakti or bhakti yoga. This concept is a kind of synthesis of two schools of Vedanta - the pure monism of Advaita Vedanta, where God and the Jiva appear as one, and the pure dualism of the Dvaita Vedanta, where God and the Jiva are absolutely different from each other. The concept of acintya-bheda-abheda underlies the theology of the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism, of which the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) is a modern representative.

Miminsa

Mimamsa or mimamsa ("research") is one of the orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. Another name is purva-mimamsa (exact translation of "first mimamsa" or "first research", as opposed to the Vedanta, called uttara-mimamsa, or "last research"). The main principles of the school are ritualism (orthopraxia), anti-asceticism and anti-mysticism. The central goal of the school is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not available, for reasoning or observation, and should be based only on the authority of the Vedas, which are considered eternal and infallible. Purva-mimamsa denies the attainment of moksha ("liberation") as the goal of life, and also denies the existence of a creator God and ruler of the universe. The school had a huge impact on the formation of the social system of the Hindu society.

The foundational text for the Mimamsa school is the Purva-Mimamsa Sutra, written by Rishi Jaimini (around the 3rd-1st century BC). The main commentary was compiled by Sabara around the 5th or 6th century AD. NS. The school reaches its pinnacle with the philosophical writings of Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara (c. 700 AD). Both Kumarila-bhatta and Prabhakara (along with Murari, whose work is currently lost) wrote extensive commentaries on Sabra's Mimamsasutrabhashyas.

Rishi Jamini, in the text of the Mimamsa Sutra (3rd century BC), summarized the general rules of Nyaya for the interpretation of the Vedas. The text contains 12 chapters, of which the first chapter has the main philosophical value. The commentaries regarding the Mimamsa Sutra of Bhartmitra, Bhavadasa, Hari and Upavarsa are lost. Sabara (1st century BC), the first commentator on the Mimamsa Sutra, whose work has come down to us. His Bhāṣya is the foundation of all later works of the Mimamsa school. Kumarila Bhatta (7th century AD), founder of the first school of Mimamsa, wrote commentaries on both the Sutra and Bhashya, Sabara. His treatise consists of 3 parts, Slokavarttika (Ślokavārttika), Tantravarttika and Tuptika. Mandana Misra (8th century AD) was a follower of Kumaril who wrote to Vidhivivek and Mimasanukramani. There are several comments on Kumarila's work. Sukarita Misra wrote Kashik (commentary) on Slokavarttika. Somewara Bhatta wrote Nyayasudha, also known as Ranaka, a commentary on Tantravarttika. Parthasarati Misra wrote Nyayaratnakara (1300 AD), another commentary on the Slokavarttika. He also wrote Sastradipika, an independent work on Mimamsa and Tantraratna. Varttikabharanya, written by Venkata Dixita, is a commentary on Tuptika. Prabhakara (8th century AD), the creator of the second school of Mimamsa, wrote his commentary by Brhati on Bhasya, Sabara. Rjuvimala written by Salikantha (9th century AD) is a commentary on Brhati. His own authorship Prakarnapantsika is an independent work of this school and Parisist is a short explanation of Bhashya, Sabara. Bhavanātha’s Nyāyaviveka deals with the views of this school in detail. The founder of the third school of Mimamsa was Murari, whose works have not reached us.

Sankhya

Sankhya is the philosophy of Indian dualism, founded by Kapila. There are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Sankhya philosophy is to distract spirit from matter.

The word "Sankhya" is based on the root KHYA, which means "it is called" as a verb; passive form - "known", "named", noun - "look", "thought", "idea". With the prefix SAM (“together”), the root forms the verb name sankhyā - “number”, “count”, which means “calculus”. Sankhyaik is the calculator.

Sankhya went through four periods in its development:

Kapila (VII-VI centuries BC) asserted both relative monotheism and absolute monism, the main provisions come from the Vedas and Upanishads.

Theistic Samkhya of the Mahabharata, Bhagavad-gita, Puranas (VI-IV centuries BC). A distinction was made between Prakriti and Purusha, who acted as the "Knower". Complete liberation of the soul is achieved through cognition of the true nature of Prakriti and Purusha, merging with Ishvara. The leading representatives of this period are Asuri and Panchashikha.

The atheistic Samkhya of the Buddhist period, which became such under his influence. With the help of logic, Sankhya tried to substantiate the reality of "I" before the attacks of Buddhism and came to the logical conclusion about the impossibility of the existence of Ishvara.

Vijnanabhishnu (VII century). Return to theistic Samkhya.

The source of reliable knowledge is three pramanas (measure):

pratyaksha (present before the eyes) - direct perception of meaning;

anumana (conclusion) - logical conclusion;

sabda - oral proof.

The question "who cognizes" is very confused in the Samkhya theory of knowledge.

Sankhya, proceeding from the presence of subject-object relations in human cognitive practice, comes to the conclusion about the beginningless existence of two independent realities - purusha and prakriti. Prakriti acts as an unconscious source of the world of objects, and purusha is an unobjective consciousness that cognizes prakriti.

Purusha is the transcendental I or pure consciousness, it is an absolute, beginningless, unchanging, unknowable reality. Purusha not only does not have a reason for existence, but also does not act as the reason for anything. Unlike Advaita Vedanta and Purva Mimamsa, Samkhya teaches about the plurality of purusa.

Prakriti is the causeless root cause of all objects in the world, devoid of consciousness. Since this is the first principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called Pradhana ("main", "most important"). Prakriti is independent and active and consists of three gunas:

sattva - the basis of the mind, characterized by subtlety, lightness, light and joy;

rajas - the basis of energy, characterized by activity, excitement and suffering;

tamas - the basis of inertia, characterized by rudeness, apathy, amorphousness and darkness.

All physical phenomena are considered as manifestations of the evolution of Prakriti.

When the gunas are in a state of equilibrium (samyavastha), there is no development, but under the influence of purusa, the balance of the gunas is disturbed, which begin to form various combinations, which gives rise to the world of objects.

mahat (Great), or buddhi, pure potency, in which there are still no subject-object relations. Then ahankara or individualization arises, in which there is already a difference between subject and object. Depending on the predominance of one of the three gunas, ahankara is three types: vaikarika, or sattvika; taijasa, or rajasa, bhutada, or tamasa. Eleven organs arise from sattvika: mind ((manas)), five organs of perception (jnanendriya), five organs of action (karmendriya). Of tamas, there are five subtle elements (tanmatra). Rajasa provides sattvika and tamasa with the necessary energy to form its products.

Five organs of perception: hearing, touch, sight, taste, smell.

Five organs of action: arms, legs, speech, excretory organ, reproductive organ.

Five subtle elements: akasha (ether), vayu (air), teja (light), apa (liquid), prithvi (solid).

Nyaya

The nyaya system is one of the six main theistic schools of Indian philosophy (mimamsa, vedanta, yoga, sankhya, nyaya, vaisesika). This is a realistic philosophy (the theory according to which things, objects of the external world, exist independently of any cognition, from the attitude to the mind), based mainly on the laws of logic. Its basic text is the Nyaya Sutras.

The foundations of Nyaya philosophy were laid by the thinker Gotama, who is also known as Gautama (not to be confused with the Buddha Gautama) and Akshapada. Therefore nyaya is also called the Akshapada system. This philosophy considers mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. It recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception (pratyaksha), conclusion, or conclusion (anumana), comparison (upamana) and evidence or proof (sabda). The objects of knowledge, according to the nyaya school, are: our self, body, feelings and their objects, cognition, mind, activity, mental defects, rebirth, feelings of pleasure and pain, suffering and freedom from suffering.

Nyayiki philosophers strive to rid the soul of its attachment to the body. According to the Nyaya system, I (atman) is an independent substance, completely different from the mind and body and acquiring the attributes of consciousness in the process of establishing a connection with an object through the senses. However, consciousness is not an inherent property of the self. This is an accidental, side property. It ceases to restrict the self in the state of liberation. Liberation means the absolute cessation of all torment and suffering, made possible by the correct knowledge of reality. Moreover, liberation is only the relief of suffering, not pleasure or happiness. To achieve liberation, one must acquire true knowledge of one's self and all other objects of experience. It is necessary to understand that our self is different from the body, mind, feelings, etc.

Nyayiki consider God to be the primary cause of creation, preservation and destruction of the world. He creates the world not out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls. The thinkers of this school prove the existence of God. They use several arguments to do this. In particular, they say that all complex objects in the world, formed by a certain combination of atoms (mountains, seas, rivers, etc.), must have a cause, because they are by their nature the consequences of some action, just as a consequence of the action the potter is a pot. Without the guidance of a rational cause, the material causes of these things cannot achieve the order, connection, and coordination that enable them to perform certain actions. Obviously, a person is weak for such a creation.

the argument is based on the question of the difference in human destinies. Nyayiki say that the causes of suffering and joy are the actions of people committed in the present and past lives. If the world is perfect by God, not only omnipotent, but also morally perfect, then obviously suffering is given to a person for bad deeds, and joy for good. If God is both the creator and the moral leader of the world, then it turns out that human beings are responsible to God for their actions. From this it naturally and necessarily follows that God rewards us for good deeds and punishes us for bad ones. In other words, in the world created by God, good actions must lead to good consequences, and harmful actions must not escape harmful consequences.

The third argument for the existence of a god is based on the authority of the Vedas.

The meaning of the nyaya system lies in its methodology, that is, in the theory of knowledge on which this philosophy is based. The theory of knowledge created in it is the basis not only for Nyaya Vaisesika, but with minor changes it also serves other systems of Indian philosophy. Nyaya applies the method of logical criticism to solve all vital and philosophical problems. Nyaya does not provide a systematic view of the world as a whole in the light of a single absolute principle.

Yoga

a concept in Indian culture, in a broad sense, means a set of various spiritual and physical practices developed in different directions of Hinduism and Buddhism and aimed at controlling the psyche and psychophysiology of an individual in order to achieve an elevated mental and spiritual state. In a narrower sense, yoga is one of the six orthodox schools (darshan) of the philosophy of Hinduism. The original goal of yoga is to change the ontological status of a person in the world.

The main areas of yoga are Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Hatha Yoga. In the context of the philosophy of Hinduism, yoga is understood as the system of Raja Yoga set forth in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and closely related to the fundamental principles of Samkhya. Yoga is discussed in various scriptures of Hinduism such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Shiva Samhita and Tantra. The ultimate goal of yoga can be very different, from improving physical health to achieving moksha.

Indian philosophy, yoga is called one of the six orthodox philosophical schools of Hinduism. The philosophical system of yoga is closely related to the Samkhya school. According to the teachings of Patanjali, the yoga school adopts the psychological and metaphysical aspects of the Samkhya philosophy and is more theistic in comparison with the Samkhya. An example of the theistic nature of yoga is the fact that the Divine Being is added to the 25 elements of the Samkhya being. Yoga and Samkhya are very close to each other, on this occasion Max Müller said that "the given philosophy in common parlance is called Samkhya with God and Samkhya without God ...". The close connection between Samkhya and yoga is also explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

The main text of the yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, who is considered the founder of yoga philosophy. The yoga of Patanjali is known as raja yoga, or yoga of mind control. Patanjali defines the word yoga in the second sutra, which is the key sutra of the entire text. This definition is based on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. IK Taimni gives the following translation: "Yoga is the curbing (nirodhah) of the mutability (vritti) of the mind (chitta)."

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali also served as the basis for the Ashtanga Yoga system ("eight-fold yoga"), which is defined in the 29th sutra of the 2nd book. Ashtanga Yoga is the main distinguishing feature of almost all modern variations of Raja Yoga. Eight steps, or levels of Ashtanga Yoga:

Pit - principles of interaction with the external environment

Niyama - principles of interaction with the internal environment

Asana - uniting mind and body through physical activity

Pranayama - breath control leading to unification of body and mind

Pratyahara - distracting the senses from contact with their objects

Dharana - Purposeful Concentration of the Mind

Dhyana - meditation (inner activity that gradually leads to samadhi)

Samadhi - a peaceful superconscious state of blissful awareness of one's true nature

Sometimes they are divided into four lower and four higher stages, of which the lower ones are compared with hatha yoga, while the higher stages belong specifically to raja yoga. The simultaneous practice of the three higher levels is called samyama.

The term yoga is often used in the Bhagavad-gita. The Bhagavad-gita describes yoga as controlling the mind, the art of action, realizing the supreme nature of the soul (atma) and the transcendence of the Supreme Lord (Bhagavan). Krishna teaches that the root of all suffering is the mind agitated by selfish desires. The only way to stop the flames of desire is to control the mind through self-discipline while engaging in sublime spiritual activities. Abstaining from activities, however, is considered just as undesirable as over-engaging in activities. According to the Bhagavad-gita, the ultimate goal is to free the mind and intelligence from material activities and concentrate them on the spiritual level through the dedication of all actions to God.

In addition to Chapter 6, which is entirely devoted to traditional yoga practices, including meditation, the Bhagavad-gita describes the three most important types of yoga:

Karma yoga - "yoga of activity"

Bhakti Yoga - Yoga of Devotion or Yoga of Devotional Service

Jnana yoga - "yoga of knowledge"

Although these paths are different from each other, their main goal is practically the same - to realize that God in His personal form (Bhagavan) is the original truth on which all existence rests, that the material body is temporary, and that the Supersoul (Paramatma) is omnipresent. ... The ultimate goal of yoga is moksha - liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) through the realization of God and one's relationship with Him. This goal can be achieved by practicing any of the three types of yoga, although in the sixth chapter Krishna talks about the superiority of bhakti over other ways of achieving the highest goal.

Hatha Yoga is one of the yoga systems described by Yogi Swatmarama in his Hatha Yoga Pradipika, compiled in India in the 15th century. Hatha yoga is significantly different from Patanjali's raja yoga: it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the body, leading to the purification of the mind (prana, or life energy (tha). Hatha yoga further develops the sitting yogic postures (asanas) of Patanjali's raja yoga, adding gymnastic yogic elements to them Nowadays, hatha yoga in its many variations is the style of yoga most often associated with the concept of "yoga".

Vaisesika

The Vaisesika system is one of the six main theistic schools of Indian philosophy (Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisesika) .. It was founded by the sage Kanada, his real name is Uluka. Vaisesika gets its name from the word visesha, which means singularity. The nickname Canada means the eater of atoms.

The impulse of the Vaisesika system is its hostility to Buddhist phenomenalism. While recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and inference, Vaisesika at the same time believes that souls and substances are immutable facts. She does not associate herself with theological problems.

The contiguous Vaisesika system of philosophy is nyaya. Both systems set before a person the same goal - the liberation of the individual self. They consider ignorance to be the root cause of all pain and suffering, and liberation is the absolute cessation of suffering, which must be achieved through the correct knowledge of reality. However, there are some differences between them, which are mainly reduced to two points.

First, if the Nayayiks recognize four independent sources of knowledge - perception, inference, similarity and evidence, then Vaisesikas - only two: perception and logical conclusion, reducing similarities and oral evidence to them.

Secondly, the Nayayiks recognize sixteen categories, believing that they exhaust all reality and include all categories accepted in other philosophical systems; the vaisesika system recognizes only seven categories of reality, namely: substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), universality (samanya), singularity (visesha), inherent (samavaya) and non-being (abhava). A category is literally understood as an object designated by a word.

Vaisesika philosophers divide all objects designated by words into two classes - being and non-being. The class of being includes everything that is, or all positive realities, such as existing objects, mind, soul, etc. In turn, the class of non-being unites all negative facts, for example, non-existent things. There are six types of being, that is, six types of positive realities: substance, quality, action, universality, peculiarity, inherent. Later Vaisesikas add to them a seventh category - non-being, which denotes all negative facts.

Unorthodox schools of Hinduism

Lokayata

Lokayata, charvaka is the materialistic teaching of Ancient India. The Lokayat school is considered atheistic. This is one of the most controversial areas of Indian philosophical thought. The origin of the school's name itself is unclear.

Most often, lokayatiki are called those who consider the soul to be identical to the body, existing only as long as the body is alive.

Lokayata is belief in the real world (loka) and disbelief in the existence of the other world

The second name of the school is associated either with the words charu and waka, the combination of which literally means "beautiful speech", or with the name of the philosopher Chubbak, who is believed to be a skeptic and materialist, the author of the Brihaspati-sutras (c. 600 BC . NS.). Others consider the founder of the teachings to be a semi-legendary sage named Brihaspati. Some sources claim that the word “carvaka” has long been used to refer to materialists, whether because they preached the doctrine of “eat, drink, be merry” (“charv” means to eat, to chew).

Lokayata belongs to the category of nastika, that is, a teaching that denies the authority of the Vedas.

Despite the fact that today there are no original texts, and some researchers consider lokayata to be a kind of sophistry of educated brahmans, it is impossible not to see the influence of the Charvaks on the development of philosophy in India, as evidenced by the polemics with them by adherents of almost all directions of Indian thought.

According to the teachings of lokayata, the universe and everything that exists happened naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces. There are 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air. They are eternal and are the fundamental principle of all that exists. The idea that complex life forms come from a long evolution (though from only 4 elements) anticipated the modern understanding of the world (Atheistic Dictionary, 1983).

Lokayata considers as true what is comprehended only by direct perception, existing - only this world (loka), the only reality - matter, the goal of human existence - the achievement of pleasure. The views of representatives of this school are sometimes compared with the views of the ancient Chinese sage Yang Zhu and ancient Greek epicureanism.

Jainism

Jainism is an ancient dharmic religion that appeared in India around the 6th century BC. The founder of the teaching is considered to be the Kshatriya Vardhamana or Jina Mahavira. Jainism preaches non-harm to all living beings in this world. The philosophy and practice of Jainism is based, first of all, on the self-improvement of the soul to achieve omniscience, omnipotence and eternal bliss. Any soul that overcomes the body shell left over from previous lives and attains nirvana is called jina. In ancient texts, Jainism is often equated with Jain Dharma and Sraman Dharma. IN modern world Jainism is represented by a small but influential religious community of 4.9 million adherents in India, as well as successfully growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and other parts of the world.

Jainism claims that any being (jiva) is an individual and eternal soul. When the soul is completely freed from samsara (attains moksha), it can attain omniscience (divine consciousness). But for this it is necessary to be an ascetic, and not a layman, therefore, in religious institutions, great importance is attached to asceticism.

The followers of Jainism are called Jains. The highest rank in Jainism is Jina - "winner". This title is given to the most revered religious teachers who have attained the dharma and have freed themselves from samsara. Jain practitioners follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas, who are known as tirthankaras ("creators of the crossing", "those who found and showed the way to salvation"). Traditionally, it is believed that the 24th and last Tirthankar was Shri Mahavir ("great hero" considered the founder of modern Jainism), who lived from 599 to 527 BC. NS. The 23rd Tirthankar was Sri Parsva, who lived from 872 to 772 BC. NS. The first tirthankar was the great king Rshabha, who lived at a time when people still did not know how to write and count.

Jainism calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control (gateway). The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception (ananta darsan), perfect knowledge (ananta jna) and perfect behavior (ananta karinta), known as the "three jewels of Jainism," are the path to liberating the human soul (to moksha) from samsara (the cycle of birth and death). Moksha is achieved after liberation from karma. Those who have attained Moksha are called siddhas (liberated souls), and those who are connected to the earth through karma are called sansarins (worldly souls). Every soul must follow the path described by Jinami in order to achieve unlimited freedom.

Jainism claims that the Universe and Dharma are endless, without end or beginning. However, cyclical processes of change take place in the Universe. It consists of living forms ("Jiva") and inanimate ("Ajiva"). The soul of a samsarin (layman) incarnates into various life forms during time travel. Man, "subhuman" (animals, insects, plants, etc.), superman (Gods and Demigods) and the beings of hell are four macroforms (types) of the Sansarian soul. All worldly relationships between one Jiva or Ajiva and another are based on the accumulation of karma and conscious thoughts, words and actions in its present form.

Another important characteristic of the Jaina teachings is the prescription not only of the sequence of actions, but also of the norms of mental behavior. There are five main ethical principles- the vows that Jains must fulfill. The degree to which these vows are to be strictly observed depends on whether the Jain is a monk or a layman. This is:

Do not harm the living (Ahimsa).

Be sincere and pious (Satya).

Do not steal (Asteya).

Do not commit adultery (Brahmacharya).

Do not acquire (Aparigraha).

Ahimsa, “nonviolence,” is fundamental; failure to comply with it makes it meaningless to follow other principles. It is sometimes interpreted as "Thou shalt not kill", but this concept is much broader. It means not to harm or insult all living things, either directly or indirectly. You cannot think about harming anyone, you cannot make speeches that can offend anyone. You should also respect the views of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of different opinions).

The principle of Satya, "truthfulness," must also be observed by all people. Since the dominant principle is Ahimsa, then if truth can cause violence, then it is better, from an ethical point of view, to remain silent. Thiruvalluvar, in his classic book Tirukkural, devoted an entire chapter to explaining the concept of truthfulness.

Asteya, literally translated “non-stealing,” means a strict adherence to one's property, suppressing the desire to take possession of someone else's, that is, the principle condemns greed. Everyone should be content with what he has managed to acquire by his own honest labor. Asteya means reducing physical needs and pursuing spiritual values. The main recommendations for implementing this principle are as follows:

It is always fair to reward people for work and results.

Never take other people's things.

Never take things that have been dropped or forgotten by others.

Never buy cheaper things if the price has been reduced in a dishonest way (approx. Financial pyramids, illegal trade, stolen things, etc.).

Brahmacharya, "monastic vow of celibacy," means complete abstinence from sex, but only monks. Brahmacharya does not condemn sex at all, but warns against the useless waste of sexual energy in pursuit of momentary pleasure.

Aparigraha, "non-acquisitiveness", giving up property and material values ​​before accepting monasticism. After this refusal, a person understands how to separate himself from things and property, also from home and family, and therefore, becomes closer to moksha. For laymen, Aparigraha means getting rid of the desire for accumulation, since the very concept of property is illusory. Once owned by one will soon become the property of another. Aparigraha teaches not to set the goal of life as the accumulation of material wealth, but to spend energy on spiritual development.

CONCLUSION

Indian philosophy is truly "living fruits" that continue to feed the world's human thought with their juices. Indian philosophy has retained complete continuity. And no philosophy has had such a strong impact on the West as the Indian one. The search for "the light that comes from the East", "the truth about the origin of the human race", which was occupied by many philosophers, theosophists, and, finally, hippies in the 60-70s of our century is an obvious evidence of the living connection that unites Western culture with India. Indian philosophy is not only exotic, but precisely the attractiveness of healing recipes that help a person to survive. A person may not know the intricacies of the theory, but do yoga breathing exercises for purely medical and physiological purposes. The main value of ancient Indian philosophy lies in its appeal to the inner world of a person, it opens up the world of possibilities for a moral personality, and this is probably the secret of its attractiveness and vitality.

At the beginning of work, I set myself the main goal of my essay and the tasks that I completed. Based on the work done, the following conclusion can be drawn. The philosophical schools of ancient India are divided into two groups: orthodox and unorthodox. The former supported the Vedas when the latter did not consider it authoritative. Each of the schools of these groups has its own teaching and its own provisions, on which it is based.

This essay talks about those moments of philosophical thought that we should be aware of. Therefore, the material collected in the work will help in the future to easily navigate in such a science as philosophy.

LIST OF SOURCES USED

Anthology of World Philosophy. - M .: Mysl, 1969 .-- p. 145

Bauer V., Dumots I., Golovin S. Encyclopedia of symbols.- M .: Kronpress, 1995.- p. 84-95.

Gods, brahmanas, people. Translated. from Czech. - M .: Mysl, 1969 .-- p. 54-56.

Ancient India (4)Abstract >> Culture and art

philosophical schools Ancient India philosophical schools Ancient India

1. Culture Ancient India (11)

   Coursework >> Culture and Art

   Groups: The first group is Orthodox philosophical schools Ancient India who recognize the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV ...). She is one of the unorthodox philosophical schools Ancient India... Jainism emerged at the same time as Buddhism ...

2. Culture as a model of the world. The problem of interaction between man and nature in Ancient India.

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   But also with other religious and religious - philosophical systems Ancient India... An analysis of these connections shows that ...). She is one of the unorthodox philosophical schools Ancient India... Jainism emerged at the same time as Buddhism ...

3. Culture and art Ancient India

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Groups: The first group is Orthodox philosophical schools Ancient India who recognize the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV ...). She is one of the unorthodox philosophical schools Ancient India... Jainism emerged at the same time as Buddhism ...

According to the traditional principles of classification adopted by most orthodox Indian thinkers, schools and systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad camps - orthodox (astika) and unorthodox (nastika). In modern Indian languages, the words "astika" ("astika") and "nastika" (" nastika ") denote theist and atheist, respectively. However, in the philosophical literature written in Sanskrit, the word "astika" denoted those "who believe in the authority of the Vedas," or those "who believe in life after death." ("Nastika" accordingly means the opposite.) These words are used here in the first sense. In the second sense, even such unorthodox schools as Buddhist and Jain will refer to astika, since their representatives believe in life after death. The six orthodox schools are astika, and the carvaka school is nastika in both senses of the word.

The first group includes six main philosophical systems: mimamsa, vedanta, sankhya, yoga, nyaya and vaisesika. They are considered orthodox not because they admit the existence of God, but because they accept the authority of the Vedas. So, for example, although the Mimamsa and Samkhya schools deny the existence of God as the creator of the world, they are still considered orthodox, since they recognize the authority of the Vedas. The six systems listed above are among the main orthodox systems. In addition to them, there are also less important orthodox schools, such as grammatical, medical and others, noted in the work of Madhavacarya.

Among the unorthodox systems are mainly three main schools - materialistic (such as Charvaka), Buddhist and Jain. They are called unorthodox because they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

To make this division more understandable, one should understand what place the Vedas occupy in the history of the development of Indian thought. The Vedas are the earliest works of Indian literature, and their influence has positively or negatively affected the entire subsequent development of Indian thought, especially philosophy. Some philosophical systems recognized the authority of the Vedas, while others denied it. The Mimamsa and Vedanta systems can, for example, be seen as a direct continuation of the Vedic tradition.

The traditions of the Vedas have two sides: ritual and speculative-karma and jnana. The mimamsa system, emphasizing the ritual side, in every possible way elevates the philosophy of the Vedas in order to justify the Vedic rituals and rituals and contribute to their cultivation. The Vedantic system, attaching exceptional importance to the speculative side of the Vedas, seeks to develop a carefully developed philosophy from the theoretical provisions of the Vedas. Since these schools were, in essence, the direct successors of the Vedic culture, both of them are sometimes called by the general word "mimamsa", and only for the sake of accuracy, one of them is called purva-mimamsa (or karma-mimansa), and the other is called utra-mimamsa (or jnana-mimansa). However, the more common names of these schools are, respectively, "mimamsa" and "vedanta", so we will adhere to this very common name here.

Although the Samkhya, Yoga, Nyayas, and Vaisesikas schools based their theories on the basis of ordinary human experience and speculation, they at the same time did not challenge the authority of the Vedas and sought to show that the text of the Vedas is in full accordance with their own mind-based theories. The char-vaka schools, Buddhist and Jain, which arose mainly in opposition to the teachings of the Vedas, naturally rejected their authority.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site istina.rin.ru/