Fundamental particles. On the understanding of the movement of matter, its ability to self-development, as well as communications and interaction of material objects in modern natural science, the Quark model of hadrons
Presented in Fig.1 fundamental fermionsWith spin ½, represent the "primers" substances. They are represented lepton (electrons e., neutrino, etc.) - particles not participating in strong nuclear interactions and quarkswho are involved in strong interactions. Nuclear particles consist of quarks - hadron (protons, neutrons and mesons). Each of these particles has its own antiparticle, which should be placed in the same cell. The designation of the antiparticle is distinguished by the sign "Tilda" (~).
From six varieties of quarks or six aromas. Electric charge 2/3 (in units of elementary charge e.) possess the top ( u.), enchanted ( c.) and true ( t.) Quarks, and charge -1/3 - Nizhny ( d.), strange ( s.) and beautiful ( b.) Quarks. Antiquarka with the same flavors will have electrical charges -2/3 and 1/3, respectively.
| Fundamental particles | |||||||||||||||||||
| Fundamental Fermions (semi-free spin) | Fundamental bosons (whole spin) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Leptons | Quark | ||||||||||||||||||
| N. E. | N M. | N T. | u. | c. | t. | 2/3 | Strong | El.-magnetic | Weak | Gravity | |||||||||
| e. | M. | T. | –1 | d. | s. | b. | –1/3 | 8 g. J. = 1 m. = 0 | G. J. = 1 m. = 0 | W. ± Z. 0 J. = 1 m.@100 | G. J. = 2 m. = 0 | ||||||||
| I. | II. | III | I. | II. | III | ||||||||||||||
| Electroslab interaction | |||||||||||||||||||
| Great Association | |||||||||||||||||||
| Super test | |||||||||||||||||||
In quantum chromodynamics (theories of strong interaction), quarks and antiquarks are attributed to the charges of a strong interaction of three types: red R. (anti-color); green G. (antselen); blue B. (Antisini). Color (strong) interaction associates quarks in the rods. The latter are divided by barionsconsisting of three quarks and mesonsconsisting of two quarks. For example, protons and neutrons relating to borons have the following quark composition:
p. = (uUD.) and n. = (dDU.) and.
For example, we give the composition of the Pi-Mesons triplet:
, , 
It is easy to see from these formulas that the proton charge is +1, and the antiproton is equal to -1. Neutron and antineutron have a zero charge. The spins of quarks in these particles are folded so that the total spins are equal to ½. Such combinations of these same quarks are possible, in which the total spins are 3/2. Such elementary particles (D ++, D +, D 0, D -) are detected and belong to resonances, i.e. short-lived rods.
The well-known process of radioactive B-decay, which is represented by the scheme
n. ® p. + e. + ,
from the point of view of quark theory looks like
(uDD.) ® ( uUD.) + e. + or d. ® u. + e. + .
Despite the multiple attempts to detect free quarks in experiments failed. This suggests that quarks are apparently manifested only in more complex particles ( film quarks). Full explanation of this phenomenon today is not given.
Figure 1 shows that there is symmetry between leptons and quarks, called a quark lepton symmetry. The top lines particles have a charge per unit more than particles of the bottom line. Particles of the first column belong to the first generation, the second one - to the second generation, and the third column - by the third generation. Actually quarks c., b. and t. were predicted on the basis of this symmetry. The matterium surrounding us consists of the first generation particles. What is the role of particles of the second and third generations? There is no final answer to this question.
These three particles (as well as other described below) are mutually attracted and repel their respectively zaryatamwho are only four types in the number of fundamental forces of nature. Charges can be positioned in order to reduce the corresponding forces as follows: Color charge (interaction force between quarks); Electrical charge (electric and magnetic strength); weak charge (strength in some radioactive processes); Finally, the mass (strength of gravity, or gravitational interaction). The word "color" here has nothing to do with the color of visible light; It is just a characteristic of a strong charge and the biggest strength.
Charges save. The charge included in the system is charged, out of it. If the total electrical charge of a certain number of particles to their interaction is equal to, say, 342 units, then it is after interaction, regardless of its result will be equal to 342 units. This also applies to other charges: color (stroke of strong interaction), weak and massive (mass). Particles differ in their charges: in essence, they and "there" these charges. Charges are like a "certificate" about the right to respond to the appropriate force. So, only color forces apply to colored particles, only electrical powers are operated on electrically charged particles, etc. The properties of the particles are determined by the greatest force acting on it. Only quarks are carriers of all charges and, therefore, are subject to all forces, among which the dominant is color. Electrons have all charges, except for the color, and the dominant for them is electromagnetic force.
The most resistant in nature turns out, as a rule, neutral combinations of particles in which particle charge of one sign is compensated by the total charge of the particles of another sign. It meets the minimum of the energy of the entire system. (In the same way, two rod magnets are located in a line, and the northern pole of one of them is facing the southern pole of another, which corresponds to a minimum of the magnetic field energy.) The gravity is an exception to this rule: negative mass does not exist. No bodies that fall up.
Types of matter
Ordinary matter is formed from electrons and quarks that are grouped into objects neutral in color, and then by electrical charge. Color force is neutralized, as described below, when the particles are combined into triplets. (From here, the term "color", taken from optics: Three main colors are given white.) Thus, quarks for which the color force is the main thing forming triplets. But quarks, and they are divided into u.- welding (from English Up - upper) and d.- welding (from the English. Down - Nizhny), have an electrical charge equal to u.Welcome and for d.- welding. Two u.Warehouse and one d.-breck give electrical charge +1 and form a proton, and one u.-Work and two d.The apartment gives zero electrical charge and form a neutron.
Stable protons and neutrons, attractable to each other by the residual color forces of the interaction between the components of their quarks, form a neutral color of the atom core. But the kernels carry a positive electric charge and, attracting negative electrons, rotating around the kernel like the planets, applying around the Sun, tend to form a neutral atom. Electrons in their orbits are removed from the nucleus at distances, tens of thousand times greater than the radius of the nucleus - evidence that the electrical forces holding them are much weaker than nuclear. Due to the strength of the color interaction, 99.945% of the mass of the atom is concluded in its kernel. Weight u.- I. d.The welders are about 600 times the mass of the electron. Therefore, the electrons are much easier and driven by the nuclei. Their movement in the substance caused electrical phenomena.
There are several hundred natural varieties of atoms (including isotopes), differing in the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus and, accordingly, the number of electrons in orbits. The easiest is a hydrogen atom consisting of a core in the form of a proton and a single electron circulating around it. All "visible" matter in nature consists of atoms and partially "disassembled" atoms called ions. Ions are atoms that, losing (or acquiring) several electrons, become charged particles. Matter consisting of almost some ions is called plasma. Stars burning at the expense of the thermalide reactions going in the centers consist mainly of plasma, and since the stars are the most common form of matter in the universe, it can be said that the entire universe consists mainly of plasma. More precisely, the stars are predominantly completely ionized hydrogen gas, i.e. A mixture of individual protons and electrons, and therefore, it consists of almost the entire visible universe.
This is visible matter. But in the universe there is still invisible matter. And there are particles acting in the role of carriers. There are antiparticles and excited states of some particles. All this leads to a clearly excessive abundance of "elementary" particles. In this abundance, you can find an indication of the valid, true nature of the elementary particles and forces acting between them. According to the most recent theories, the particles are based on extensive geometric objects - "strings" in the ten-dimensional space.
Invisible world.
In the universe there is not only visible matter (as well as black holes and "dark matter", such as cold planets, which will be visible, if they are lit). There is a truly invisible matter, permeating all of us and the entire universe every second. It is a fast moving gas from particles of one variety - electronic neutrino.
Electronic neutrino is an electron partner, but does not have an electric charge. Neutrinos carry only the so-called weak charge. Their rest mass is likely to zero. But with the gravitational field they interact, because they have kinetic energy E.which corresponds to an effective mass m.According to Einstein's formula E. = mC. 2, where c. - The speed of light.
The key role of neutrino is that it contributes to the transformation and-Kvarkov B. d.-The welding, as a result of which the proton turns into a neutron. Neutrino plays the role of the "Needle of the Carburetor" for star thermonuclear reactions, in which four protons (hydrogen cores) are combined, forming the helium core. But since the helium core consists not of four protons, but from two protons and two neutrons, for such a nuclear synthesis, you need two and- welding turned into two d.- welding. The intensity of the transformation depends on how quickly the stars will burn. And the transformation process is determined by weak charges and the forces of weak interaction between particles. Wherein and-cake (electrical charge +2/3, weak charge +1/2), interacting with the electron (electrical charge - 1, weak charge -1/2) forms d.-Work (Electric charge -1/3, weak charge -1/2) and electronic neutrino (electric charge 0, weak charge +1/2). Color charges (or just colors) of two quarks in this process are compensated without neutrino. The role of neutrinos is to carry an uncompensated weak charge. Therefore, the transformation rate depends on how much weak forces are weak. If they were weaker than they are, the stars would not have burned at all. If they were stronger, the stars would have burned down.
What is neutrino? Since these particles are extremely weakly interact with another substance, they almost immediately leave the stars in which they were born. All the stars are shining, emitting neutrinos, and neutrino day and night will shine our bodies and all the land. So they walked through the Universe until they enter, maybe in the new stars interaction).
Interaction porters.
Due to what arise forces acting between particles at a distance? Modern physics is responsible: due to the exchange of other particles. Imagine two skaters throwing the ball. By telling the ball pulse when throwing and getting a pulse with a ball accepted, both get a push towards each other. So you can explain the emergence of repulsion forces. But in a quantum mechanic considering the phenomenon in the field of the microworld, unusual stretching and delocalization of events are allowed, which will seem to be impossible: one of the skaters throws the ball towards from another, but that nevertheless can This ball catch. It is not difficult to figure out that if it may be (and in the world of elementary particles it is possible), there would be an attraction between the skaters.
Particles, thanks to the exchange of which the interaction forces arise between the four considered above "particles of matter" are called calibration particles. Each of the four interactions is a strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational - corresponds to its set of calibration particles. Gluions (there are only eight) are carrying particles. Photon is a carrier of electromagnetic interaction (it is one, and photons we perceive as light). The carrier particles of weak interaction are intermediate vector bosons (in 1983 and 1984 were open W. + -, W. - -bosons and neutral Z.-Boron). The portion of the gravitational interaction is still a hypothetical graviton (it must be one). All these particles, except for photon and graviton, which may run infinitely long distances, exist only in the process of exchanging between material particles. Photons fill the universe light, and gravitons - gravitational waves (not yet detected with reliability).
About the particle capable of emitting calibration particles, it is said that it is surrounded by the corresponding field of forces. Thus, electrons capable of emitting photons are surrounded by electrical and magnetic fields, as well as weak and gravitational fields. Quarks are also surrounded by all these fields, but also the field of strong interaction. A color force acts on the particles with a color charge in the field of color strength. The same applies to other forces of nature. Therefore, it can be said that the world consists of a substance (material particles) and fields (calibration particles). About this Read more below.
Antimatter.
Each particle responds with an antiparticle, with which the particle can be mutually destroyed, i.e. "Annigilament", resulting in a release of energy. "Clean" energy in itself, however, does not exist; As a result of annihlation, new particles arise (for example, photons), carrying out this energy.
Anticascular in most cases has the properties opposite to the corresponding particle: if the particle under the action of strong, weak or electromagnetic fields is moving to the left, then its antiparticle will move to the right. In short, the antiparticle has opposite signs of all charges (except for mass charge). If the particle is composite, such as neutron, then its antiparticle consists of a component with opposite signs of charges. Thus, the antiolectron has an electrical charge +1, weak charge is +1/2 and is called a positron. Antineutron consists of and-Anctricvarks with electric charge -2/3 and d.Yantikvarkov with electric charge +1/3. Truly neutral particles are their own antiparticles: photon antiparticle is a photon.
According to modern theoretical ideas, its own antiparticle must be for each existing particle in nature. And many antiparticles, including positrons and antineutrons, were indeed obtained in the laboratory. The consequences of this are extremely important and underlie the entire experimental physics of elementary particles. According to the theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent, and under certain conditions, the energy can be turned into a mass. Since the charge is preserved, and the charge of the vacuum (empty space) is zero, from a vacuum, like rabbits from a magician hats, any pairs of particles and anti-particles (with a zero total charge) can occur, only energy would be sufficient to create their mass.
Generations of particles.
Experiments on accelerators showed that the four (quartet) of material particles at least twice repeated at higher mass values. In the second generation, the electron place occupies a muon (with a mass of about 200 times the larger electron mass, but with the previous values \u200b\u200bof all other charges), the place of electronic neutrino - muon (which accompanies in the weak interactions of the MONUP in the same way as the electron neutrino is accompanied by an electron), a place andSaver occupies from-breck ( charmed), but d.-skka - s.-breck ( strange). In the third generation, the quartet consists of Tau-Lepton, Tau-Neutrino, t.-skkaka I. b.- welding.
Weight t.The apartment is approximately 500 times the mass of the lightest - d.- welding. It is experimentally established that there are only three types of neutrinos. Thus, the fourth generation of particles or does not exist at all, or the corresponding neutrinos are very heavy. This is consistent with cosmological data, in accordance with which no more than four types of neutrino lungs can exist.
In experiments with high-energy particles, the electron, muon, Tau-lepton and the corresponding neutrinos act as separate particles. They do not carry the color charge and enter only weak and electromagnetic interactions. In the aggregate they are called lepton.
| Table 2. Generations of fundamental particles | ||||
| Particle | Peace Mass, MeV / from 2 | Electric charge | Color charge | Weak charge |
| Second generation | ||||
| from-quark | 1500 | +2/3 | Red, green or blue | +1/2 |
| s.-quark | 500 | –1/3 | Also | –1/2 |
| Muon neutrino | 0 | 0 | +1/2 | |
| Mueon | 106 | 0 | 0 | –1/2 |
| Third generation | ||||
| t.-quark | 30000–174000 | +2/3 | Red, green or blue | +1/2 |
| b.-quark | 4700 | –1/3 | Also | –1/2 |
| Tau-neutrino | 0 | 0 | +1/2 | |
| Tau | 1777 | –1 | 0 | –1/2 |
Quarks, under the action of color forces, are combined into strongly interacting particles, prevailing in most experiments of high-energy physics. Such particles are called adronomes. They include two subclasses: barions(for example, proton and neutron), which consist of three quarks, and mesonsconsisting of quark and antiquark. In 1947, the first meson was opened in the space rays, called Peion (or Pi-Meson), and for some time it was believed that the exchange of these particles is the main cause of nuclear forces. Especially fame in the physics of elementary particles used the omega-minus hadron, open in 1964 in the Brookhewan National Laboratory (USA), and Jay-Piece ( J./y."Season), opened at the same time in Brookheven and in the Stanford Center of Linear Accelerators (also in the USA) in 1974. The existence of an omega-minus particle was predicted by M. Gell-Mann in its so-called" SU. 3 -teory "(another name -" octal path "), in which for the first time it was suggested the possibility of the existence of quarks (and it was given to them). Decade later Opening a particle J./y. confirmed existence from-cake and forced finally to believe everyone in the quark model, and in the theory, united electromagnetic and weak forces ( see below).
Particles of the second and third generation are no less real than the first. True, arising, they are for millions of or billion dollars of seconds fall into conventional first generation particles: electron, electronic neutrino, as well as and- I. d.- welding. The question of why in nature there are several generations of particles, still remains a mystery.
About different generations of quarks and leptons often say (which, of course, somewhat eccentric) as different "fragrances" of particles. The need for their explanation is called the problem of "aroma".
Bosons and fermions, field and substance
One of the fundamental differences between the particles is the difference between bosons and fermions. All particles are divided into these two main class. The same bosons can be adopted on each other or overlap, and the same fermions are not. The imposition occurs (or does not happen) in discrete energy states, to which the quantum mechanics divides nature. These states are as part of individual cells in which particles can be placed. So, in one cell can be placed as much as the same bosons, but only one fermion.
As an example, we consider such cells, or "states", for an electron rotating around the nucleus of the atom. Unlike the planets of the solar system, the electron according to the laws of quantum mechanics cannot contact any elliptical orbit, there is only a discrete number of permitted "motion conditions". Sets of such states, grouped in accordance with the distance from the electron to the kernel, are called orbitals. In the first orbitals there are two states with different moments of impulse and, therefore, two permitted cells, and in higher orbitals - eight and more cells.
Since the electron refers to fermions, only one electron can be in each cell. From here, very important consequences arise - all chemistry, since the chemical properties of substances are determined by the interactions between the corresponding atoms. If we go through the periodic system of elements from one atom to another in order to increase the number of protons in the nucleus (the number of electrons will also increase accordingly), then the first two electrons will take the first orbital, the next eight will be located on the second, etc. This consistent change in the electronic structure of atoms from the element to the element is due to the patterns in their chemical properties.
If the electrons were bosons, then all the electrons of the atom could occupy the same orbital corresponding to the minimum energy. In this case, the properties of the entire substance in the universe would be completely different, and in the form in which we know it, the universe would be impossible.
All leptons are an electron, muon, Tau-Lepton and the corresponding neutrino - are fermions. The same can be said about quarks. Thus, all particles that form a "substance", the main filler of the universe, as well as invisible neutrinos, are fermions. This is quite essential: Fermions cannot be combined, so the same applies to the subjects of the material world.
At the same time, all "calibration particles", which exchange interacting material particles and which create the field of forces ( see above) are bosons, which is also very important. For example, many photons can be in one state, forming a magnetic field around a magnet or an electric field around an electric charge. Thanks to the same laser.
Spin.
The difference between bosons and fermions is associated with another characteristic of elementary particles - back. It is not surprising, but all fundamental particles have their own moment of impulse or, simply speaking, rotate around their axis. The moment of the impulse is the characteristic of the rotational motion, as well as the total impulse - translational. In any interactions, the moment of momentum and impulse are saved.
In the microworld, the moment of the impulse is quantum, i.e. Takes discrete values. In suitable units of measuring, leptons and quarks have a spin equal to 1/2, and the calibration particles - the spin equal to 1 (except graviton, which was not experimentally observed, and theoretically should have a spin equal to 2). Since leptons and quarks are fermions, and calibration particles - bosons, it can be assumed that "fermionism" is associated with spin 1/2, and "bosonity" - with spin 1 (or 2). Indeed, the experiment and the theory confirm that if a particle has a semi-free spin, then it is a fermion, and if a whole is a boson.
Calibration theories and geometry
In all cases, the forces arise due to the exchange of bosons between fermions. Thus, the color force of interaction between two quarks (quarks - fermions) occurs due to the exchange of gluons. Such an exchange is constantly going on in protons, neutrons and atomic nuclei. Similarly, photons that are exchanged electrons and quarks create electrical forces of attraction, holding electrons in the atom, and intermediate vector bosons that are exchanged leptons and quarks create forces of weak interaction responsible for the transformation of protons into neutrons with thermonuclear reactions in the stars.
The theory of such an exchange is elegant, simple and probably correct. It is called calibration theory. But at present, there are only independent calibration theories of strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions and similar to them, although some of which is different, the calibration theory of gravity. One of the most important physical problems is to reduce these individual theories into one and at the same time a simple theory in which all of them would be different aspects of a single reality - as the edge of the crystal.
| Table 3. Some hadrons | ||||
| Particle | Symbol | Quark composition * | Rest mass MeV / from 2 | Electric charge |
| Barions | ||||
| Proton | p. | uUD. | 938 | +1 |
| Neutron | n. | uDD. | 940 | 0 |
| Omega-minus | W - | sSS. | 1672 | –1 |
| Mesons | ||||
| PI Plus | p. + | u. | 140 | +1 |
| Pi-minus | p. – | du | 140 | –1 |
| F. | f. | sє. | 1020 | 0 |
| Jay Pie | J./ Y. | cў. | 3100 | 0 |
| Ipsylon | Ў | b. | 9460 | 0 |
| * Quark composition: u. - upper; d. - lower; s. - strange; c. - fascinated; b. - beautiful. The feature above the letter is indicated by antiquark. | ||||
The simplest and oldest of calibration theories is the calibration theory of electromagnetic interaction. In it, the electron charge is compared (calibrated) with a charge of another electron removed from it. How can I compare charges? You can, for example, bring the second electron to the first and compare their interaction forces. But does the electron charge do not change when it moves to another point of space? The only way to check is to send from the near electron to the long-run signal and see how it reacts. The signal is the calibration particle - photon. So that you can check the charge on remote particles, a photon is needed.
In mathematical terms, this theory is distinguished by extreme accuracy and beauty. Of the "calibration principle described above" flows all quantum electrodynamics (quantum theory of electromagnetism), as well as the theory of the Maxwell electromagnetic field - one of the greatest scientific achievements of 19 V.
Why is such a simple principle, it turns out so fruitful? Apparently, it expresses a certain correlation of different parts of the universe, allowing measurements in the universe. In mathematical terms, the field is interpreted geometrically as a curvature of some thought "internal" space. Measuring the same charge is the measurement of complete "internal curvature" around the particle. The calibration theories of strong and weak interactions differ from the electromagnetic calibration theory of only the internal geometric "structure" of the corresponding charge. On the question of where it is precisely the internal space is, multidimensional uniform field theories that are not considered here are trying to answer.
| Table 4. Fundamental interactions | |||||
| Interaction | Relative intensity at a distance of 10 -13 cm | Radius of action | Carrier interaction | Mass of resting carriers, MeV / from 2 | Spin carrier |
| Strong | 1 | Gluong | 0 | 1 | |
| Electrical Magnetic |
0,01 | Ґ | Photon | 0 | 1 |
| Weak | 10 –13 | W. + | 80400 | 1 | |
| W. – | 80400 | 1 | |||
| Z. 0 | 91190 | 1 | |||
| Gravita § |
10 –38 | Ґ | Graviton | 0 | 2 |
The physics of elementary particles has not yet been completed. It is still not clear whether the available data is enough to fully understand the nature of the particles and forces, as well as the true nature and dimension of space and time. Do we need experiments with energies of 10 15 GeV for this or will the thought effort be enough? There is no response yet. But we can say with confidence that the final picture will be simple, elegant and beautiful. It is possible that there are not many fundamental ideas: the calibration principle, the spaces of the highest dimensions, collapse and expansion, and above all geometry.
| Generation | Quarks with charge (+2/3) | Quarks with charge (-1/3) | ||||||
| Symbol Quark / Antiquarka | Mass (MeV) | Name / Aroma Quark / Antiquarka | Symbol Quark / Antiquarka | Mass (MeV) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | U-Quark (Up-Quark) / Anti-U-Quark | from 1.5 to 3 | D-quark (DOWN-quark) / Anti-D-quark | 4.79 ± 0.07 | ||||
| 2 | C-quark (Charm-Quark) / Anti-C-quark | 1250 ± 90. | S-Quark (Strange-Quark) / Anti-S-Quark | 95 ± 25. | ||||
| 3 | T-quark (TOP-quark) / Anti-T-Quark | 174 200 ± 3300 | B-Quark (Bottom-Quark) / Anti-B-Quark | 4200 ± 70. | ||||
see also
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Notes
Links
- S. A. Slavinsky // Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region)
- Slavinsky S.A. // Coolas, 2001, NO 2, p. 62-68 web.archive.org/web/20060116134302/journal.issep.rssi.ru/annot.php?id\u003dS1176.
- // nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru.
- // Second-physics.ru.
- // Physics.ru.
- // Nature.Web.ru.
- // Nature.Web.ru.
- // Nature.Web.ru.
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Excerpt characterizing the fundamental particle
The next day he woke up late. Renewing the impressions of the past, he remembered first of all that now it is necessary to submit to the Emperor, the Frenchman, he remembered the military minister, the courtesy of the Austrian Flegene Adjutant, Bilibin and the conversation of yesterday evening. Dressed in a full front-end shape, which he had not worn for a long time, for a trip to the palace, he, fresh, lively and beautiful, with his hand tied, entered the Cabinet of Bilibin. There were four Mr. Diplomatic Corps in the office. With Prince, Ippolite Kuragin, who was secretary of the embassy, \u200b\u200bBolkonsky was familiar; With others, he introduced Bilibin.The gentlemen who were from Bilibin, secular, young, rich and fun people were in Vienna and here a separate circle, which Bilibin, the former chapter of this mug, called our, Les NFTres. In the circle of this, which consisted almost exclusively from diplomats, apparently, were their own who had nothing to do with war and politics, the interests of the highest light, relations to some women and the stationery of the service. These gentlemen, who will seem willingly, as their own (the honor they did a little), took into their circle of Prince Andrew. From courtesy, and as an item for joining the conversation, he made a few questions about the army and battle, and the conversation again crumbled on inconsistent, fun jokes and peres.
"But especially good," said one comrade of a diplomat, saying that Chancellor told him that his appointment to London was an increase, and so that he looked at it. Do you see his figure at the same time? ...
- But what is all worse, gentlemen, I give you Kuragin: a person in misfortunes, and this Don Juan enjoys this, this terrible person!
Prince Ippolit lay in the Voltaire chair, putting his legs through the handle. He laughed.
"Parlez Moi de Ca, [Well, well, well," he said.
- Oh, Don Juan! Oh, snake! - Voices heard.
"You don't know, Bolkonsky," said Bilibin to Prince Andrei, - that all the horrors of the French army (I almost said - the Russian army) is nothing in comparison with what has done this person between women.
- La Femme Est La Compagne de L "Homme, [Woman - a man's girlfriend," said Prince Ippolit and began to look at Lorrow on his raised legs.
Bilibin and our breakdown, looking into the eyes of the Ippolit. Prince Andrei saw that this Ippolite, whom he (should be confessed) almost jealous to his wife, was a joke in this society.
"No, I have to treat you to Kuragin," said Bilibin quiet Bolkonsky. - He is adorable when he talks about politics, it is necessary to see this importance.
He hooked up to Ippolit and, having gathered his folds on his forehead, had a talk about politics with him. Prince Andrei and others have profasted both.
- Le Cabinet De Berlin Ne Peut Pas Exprimer Un Sentiment D "Alliance, - Beginning Hippolyte, Significantly Looking at all, - Sans Exprimer ... Comme Dans SA Derieniere Note ... Vous Comprenez ... Vous Comprenez ... et PUIS Si Sa Majeste L" Empereur Ne Deroge Pas Au Principe de Notre Alliance ... [Berlin Cabinet can not express his opinion about the Union, not expressing ... as in his last note ... you understand ... You understand ... However, if His Majesty Emperor does not change the essence of our Union ...]
- Attendez, Je N "Ai Pas Fini ... - He said to Andrei, grabbing his hand. - Je Suppose Que L" Intervention Sera Plus Forte Que La Non Intervention. ET ... - He paused. - On Ne Pourra Pas Imputer a La Fin de Non Recevoir Notre Depeche du 28 Novembre. Voila Comment Tout Cela Finira. [Wait, I did not finish. I think that intervention will be stronger than non-interference and ... it is impossible to consider the case by the end of the non-acceptance of our deppendacy of November 28. Than all this will end.]
And he let the hand of Bologkoe, showing that now he completely finished.
- Demosthenes, Je Te Reconnais Au Callloou Que Tu As Cache Dans Ta Bouche D "Or! [Demosphen, I recognize you on a pebble, which you hide in your golden lips!] - said Bilibin, whose hair cap was moved on his head from pleasure .
Everyone laughed. Ippolit laughed louder than everyone. He, apparently, suffered, chuckled, but could not resist wild laugh, stretching him always a fixed face.
"Well, that's the gentlemen," said Bilibin, "Bolkonsky is my guest in the house and here in Brynne, and I want to treat him how much I can, all the joy of the world's life. If we were in Brynne, it would be easy; But here, Dans Ce Vilain Trou Morave [in this bad Moravian hole], it is harder, and I ask you to help you. Il Faut Lui Faire Les Honneurs de Brunn. [It is necessary for him to show Brynn.] You take on the theater, I am a society, you, Ippolit, of course, are women.
- You need to show Amelie, Charm! Said one of our, kissing fingertips.
"In general, this bloodthirsty soldier," said Bilibin, "you have to turn to more person-loving views."
"I apologize to your hospitality, gentlemen, and now I have to go, looking at the clock, Trankalsky said.
- Where to?
- To the emperor.
- ABOUT! about! about!
- Well, goodbye, Bolkonsky! Goodbye, prince; Come to dinner before, - the vote. - We take for you.
"Try to praise the order as possible to deliver the province and routes as possible, when you speak with the emperor," said Bilibin, accompanied before the front Bolkonsky.
"And wish to praise, but I can't know how much I know," the Bolkonsky answered smiling.
- Well, in general you say as much as possible. His passion - audience; And he himself does not like and does not know how to see.
Even relatively recently, elementary considered several hundred particles and antiparticles. A detailed study of their properties and interactions with other particles and the development of the theory has shown that most of them are not really elementary, as they themselves consist of the simplest or, as they say the fundamental particles. Fundamental particles themselves are no longer consistent. Numerous experiments have shown that all fundamental particles behave like dimensionless pointing points that do not have an internal structure, at least to the smallest, studied distances now ~ 10 -16 cm.
Among the countless and diverse processes of interaction between particles there are four main or fundamental interactions: strong (nuclear), electromagnetic , weak and gravitational. In the world of particles, gravitational interaction is very weak, its role is still unclear, and we will not talk about it further.
In nature, there are two particle groups: hadron, which participate in all fundamental interactions, and leptons, not participating only in strong interaction.
According to modern ideas, interactions between particles are carried out by emitting and subsequent absorption of quanta of the corresponding field (strong, weak, electromagnetic) surrounding particle. Such quanta are calibration bosons Also being fundamental particles. Bosons are proper moment moment , called spin, is an integer value. permanent Planck . Field quantas and, respectively, the sleeves of strong interaction are gluons denoted by the symbol G (Ji), the quanta of the electromagnetic field are well known to us of light quanta - photons, denoted (gamma), and quanta of the weak field and, respectively, the weak interactions, respectively, are W. ± (double) - and Z. 0 (zem zero) -bosone.
In contrast to bosons, all other fundamental particles are fermions, that is, by particles having a half-speaking back of the back, equal h./2.
In tab. 1 shows the symbols of fundamental fermions - leptons and quarks.
Each particle shown in Table. 1 corresponds to an antiparticle, differing from the particle only by electrical charge signs and other quantum numbers (see Table 2) and the direction of the spin relative to the direction of the particle pulse. Anticascies We will denote the same characters as particles, but with a wavy feature above the symbol.
Particles in table. 1 marked with Greek and Latin letters, namely: the letter (nude) - three different neutrinos, letters E - electron, (MJ) - Muon, (Tau) - Taon, letters U, C, T, D, S, B marked quarks ; Their names and characteristics are given in Table. 2.
Particles in table. 1 is grouped into three generations I, II and III in accordance with the structure of modern theory. Our universe is built from particles of the first generation - leptons and quarks and calibration bosons, but, as the modern science of the development of the Universe shows, particles of all three generations played an important role at the initial stage of its development.
| Leptons | Quark | ||||||||||||
|
|
Leptons
First consider in more detail the properties of Leptons. In the top line tab. 1 contains three different neutrinos: electronic, muon and tau-neutrino. Their mass is still not measured definitely, but its upper limit is determined, for example, for NE equal to 10 -5 from the magnitude of the electron mass (that is, d).
When looking at the table. 1 involuntarily arises the question of whether the nature it took the creation of three different neutrinos. There is no answer to this question yet, for such a comprehensive theory of fundamental particles has not been created, which would indicate the need and sufficiency of all such particles and would describe their basic properties. Perhaps this problem will be solved in the XXI century (or later).
Low line tab. 1 begins with the most studied particles - an electron. The electron was opened at the end of the last century by the English physicist J. Thomson. The role of electrons in our world is huge. They are those negatively charged particles, which together with atomic nuclei form all atoms of the elements known to us Periodic table of Mendeleev . In each atom, the number of electrons is exactly equal to the number of protons in the atomic nucleus, which makes the atom electrically neutral.
The electron is stable, the main possibility of destruction of the electron is its death when weaning with an antiparticle - the positron E +. This process was called annihilation :
.
As a result of the annihilation, two gamma quanta are formed (so called high-energy photons), carrying and energies of rest E + and E -, and their kinetic energies. At high energy E + and E, hadron and quark pairs are formed (see, for example, (5) and Fig. 4).
The reaction (1) illustrates the justice of the famous formula A. Einstein on the equivalence of mass and energy: E. = mC. 2 .
Indeed, with annihilation stopped in the substance of the positron and the rest of the electron, the whole mass of their rest (equal to 1.22 MeV) goes into energy -kvants that do not have peace masses.
In the second generation of the bottom line tab. 1 Located mueon - Particle, which is in all its properties analogue of an electron, but with an abnormally large mass. Money mass 207 times more electron mass. Unlike the electron, the muon is unstable. Time of his life t. \u003d 2.2 · 10 -6 s. Muon preferably disintegrates on the electron and two neutrino according to the scheme
An even more severe analogue of an electron is. Its mass is more than 3 thousand times superior to the mass of the electron (MeV / C 2), that is, the Ton is heavier than proton and neutron. The time of his life is 2.9 · 10 -13 C, and from more than one hundred different schemes (channels) of its decay are the following.
Even relatively recently, elementary considered several hundred particles and antiparticles. A detailed study of their properties and interactions with other particles and the development of the theory has shown that most of them are not really elementary, as they themselves consist of the simplest or, as they say the fundamental particles. Fundamental particles themselves are no longer consistent. Numerous experiments have shown that all fundamental particles behave like dimensionless pointing points that do not have an internal structure, at least to the smallest, studied distances now ~ 10 -16 cm.
Introduction
Among the countless and diverse processes of interaction between particles there are four main or fundamental interactions: strong (nuclear), electromagnetic, and gravitational. In the world of particles, gravitational interaction is very weak, its role is still unclear, and we will not talk about it further.
In nature, there are two particle groups: hadron, which participate in all fundamental interactions, and leptons, not participating only in strong interaction.
According to modern ideas, interactions between particles are carried out by emitting and subsequent absorption of quanta of the corresponding field (strong, weak, electromagnetic) surrounding particle. Such quantas are calibration bosines, which are also fundamental particles. At the bosons, its own moment of movement, called spin, is an integer value of a permanent strap $ H \u003d 1.05 \\ CDOT 10 ^ (- 27) erg \\ CDOT with $. Quanta fields and respectively with powerful interaction are gluons indicated by the symbol G, the solenomagnetic field quanta are well-known for us of light quanta - photons, denoted by $ \\ gamma $, and quanta of a weak field and, respectively, the weak interactions, respectively, are W. ± (double) - and Z. 0 (zem zero) -bosone.
In contrast to bosons, all other fundamental particles are fermions, that is, by particles having a half-speaking back of the back, equal h./2.
In tab. 1 shows the symbols of fundamental fermions - leptons and quarks.
Each particle shown in Table. 1 corresponds to an antiparticle, differing from the particle only by electrical charge signs and other quantum numbers (see Table 2) and the direction of the spin relative to the direction of the particle pulse. Anticascies We will denote the same characters as particles, but with a wavy feature above the symbol.
Particles in table. 1 marked with Greek and Latin letters, namely: the letter $ \\ nu $ is three different neutrinos, letters E - electron, $ \\ mu $ - muon, $ \\ tau $ - Taon, letters u, c, t, d, s, b marked quarks; Their names and characteristics are given in Table. 2.
Particles in table. 1 is grouped into three generations I, II and III in accordance with the structure of modern theory. Our universe is built from particles of the first generation - leptons and quarks and calibration bosons, but, as the modern science of the development of the Universe shows, particles of all three generations played an important role at the initial stage of its development.
| Leptons | Quark | ||||||||||||
|
|
Leptons
First consider in more detail the properties of Leptons. In the top line tab. 1 contains three different neutrinos: electronic $ \\ Nu_e $, muon $ \\ Nu_m $ and Tau-neutrino $ \\ Nu_t $. Their mass is still not measured definitely, but its upper limit is determined, for example, for NE equal to 10 -5 from the magnitude of the electron mass (i.e. $ \\ leq 10 ^ (- 32) $ d).
When looking at the table. 1 involuntarily arises the question of whether the nature it took the creation of three different neutrinos. There is no answer to this question yet, for such a comprehensive theory of fundamental particles has not been created, which would indicate the need and sufficiency of all such particles and would describe their basic properties. Perhaps this problem will be solved in the XXI century (or later).
Low line tab. 1 begins with the most studied particles - an electron. The electron was opened at the end of the last century by the English physicist J. Thomson. The role of electrons in our world is huge. They are those negatively charged particles, which, together with atomic nuclei, form all atoms of the elements of the periodic table of Mendeleev known to us. In each atom, the number of electrons is exactly equal to the number of protons in the atomic nucleus, which makes the atom electrically neutral.
The electron is stable, the main possibility of destruction of the electron is its death when weaning with an antiparticle - the positron E +. This process was called annihilation:
$$ E ^ - + E ^ + \\ To \\ Gamma + \\ Gamma. $$
As a result of the annihilation, two gamma quanta are formed (so called high-energy photons), carrying and energies of rest E + and E -, and their kinetic energies. At high energy E + and E, hadron and quark pairs are formed (see, for example, (5) and Fig. 4).
The reaction (1) illustrates the justice of the famous formula A. Einstein on the equivalence of mass and energy: E. = mC. 2 .
Indeed, with the annihilation of the positron who stopped in the substance and the rest of the electron, the whole mass of their peace (equal to 1.22 MeV) passes into the energy of $ \\ gamma $ -kvants, which do not have the masses of peace.
In the second generation of the bottom line tab. 1 Located\u003e Muon - a particle, which is in all its properties an analogue of an electron, but with an abnormally large mass. Money mass 207 times more electron mass. Unlike the electron, the muon is unstable. Time of his life t. \u003d 2.2 · 10 -6 s. Muon preferably disintegrates on the electron and two neutrino according to the scheme
$$ \\ mu ^ - \\ to e ^ - + \\ tilde \\ nu_e + \\ nu _ (\\ mu) $$
An even more severe analogue of an electron is $ \\ tau $ -lipton (Taon). Its mass is more than 3 thousand times higher than the electron mass ($ M _ (\\ Tau) \u003d $ 1777 MeV / C 2), that is, a tone of the proton and neutron. The time of his life is 2.9 · 10 -13 C, and from more than one hundred different schemes (channels) of its decay are as follows:
$$ \\ TAU ^ - \\ Left \\ Langle \\ Begin (Matrix) \\ To E ^ - + \\ Tilde \\ Nu_e + \\ Nu _ (\\ Tau) \\\\\\ To \\ Mu ^ - + \\ Tilde \\ Nu_ \\ Mu + \\ Nu_ (\\ Tau) \\ End (Matrix) \\ Right. $$
Speaking of leptons, it is interesting to compare weak and electromagnetic forces at some certain distance, for example R. \u003d 10 -13 cm. At such a distance, electromagnetic forces are more weak for almost 10 billion times. But this does not mean that the role of weak forces in Nature is Mala. There is no way.
It is weak forces that are responsible for many mutual transformations of various particles into other particles, such as, for example, in reactions (2), (3), and such mutuals are one of the most characteristic traits of particle physics. Unlike reactions (2), (3) in the reaction (1) electromagnetic forces apply.
Speaking of leptons, it is necessary to add that modern theory describes electromagnetic and weak interactions with the help of a single electroweavy theory. It was developed by S. Weinberg, A. Salam and Sh. Glashow in 1967.
Quark
The very idea of \u200b\u200bquarks arose as a result of a brilliant attempt to classify a large number of particles involved in strong interactions and called adrones. M. Gelle Man and G. Tsweig suggested that all hadrons consist of a corresponding set of fundamental particles - quarks, their antiquarks and carriers of strong interaction - gluons.
The total number of hadrons observed at present is more than one hundred particles (and the same antiparticle). Many dozens of particles have not yet been registered. All hadrons are divided into heavy particles called bariones , and medium, named mesons.
Barionic is characterized by a baryon number b. \u003d 1 for particles and b.& nbsp \u003d -1 for antibarone. Their birth and destruction always occur in pairs: Barione and Antibarion. The mesons are baryon charge b.& nbsp \u003d 0. According to the idea of \u200b\u200bHelle Mana and Collega, all baryons consist of three quarks, antibarons are of three antiquarks. Therefore, each quark was attributed to the Baryon number 1/3, so that in the amount of Bariona was b. \u003d 1 (or -1 for antibarone consisting of three antiquarks). Mesons have a baryonic number b. \u003d 0, so they can be made up of any combination of couples of any quark and any antiquark. In addition to the same quartes of quantum numbers - the spin and baryon number there are other important characteristics, such as the magnitude of their peace mass m., electrical charge Q./e. (in the shares of the electron charge e. \u003d 1.6 & Middot 10 -19 pendant) and some set of quantum numbers characterizing the so-called fragrance quark . These include:
1) the magnitude of the isotopic spin I. and the magnitude of his third projection, that is I. 3. So, u.-Kvark I. d.-Work form isotopic doublet, they are assigned a full isotopic spin I. \u003d 1/2 with projections I. 3 \u003d +1/2 corresponding to u.- welding, I. I. 3 \u003d -1/2 corresponding to d.- welding. Both doublet components have close masses and identical to all other properties, with the exception of an electric charge;
2) quantum number S. - Strange characterizes the strange behavior of some particles that have an abnormally long lifetime (~ 10 -8 - 10 -13 c) compared with the characteristic nuclear time (~ 10 -23 c). The particles themselves were named strange, their composition includes one or more strange quarks and strange antiquarks. The birth or disappearance of strange particles due to strong interactions occur in pairs, that is, in any nuclear reaction, the amount of $ \\ sigma $ S to the reaction should be $ \\ Sigma $ s after the reaction. However, in weak interactions, the law of conservation of oddity is not fulfilled.
In experiments on accelerators, particles were observed, which were impossible to describe with u.-, d.- I. s.-Work. By analogy with strangeness it was necessary to introduce three more new quarks with new quantum numbers. FROM = +1, IN \u003d -1 I. T. \u003d +1. The particles composed of these quarks have a significantly larger mass (\u003e 2 GeV / C 2). They have a wide variety of decay schemes with life time ~ 10 -13 s. The summary of the characteristics of all quarks is given in Table. 2.
Each quark of table. 2 corresponds to its antique. Antiquarkov has all quantum numbers have a sign that is the opposite of what is specified for quark. On the magnitude of the mass of quarks, the following must be said. Led in Table. 2 values \u200b\u200bcorrespond to the masses of naked quarks, that is, the coming quarks without taking into account their gluons around them. The mass of dressed quarks due to energy, incommable gluons, more. This is especially noticeable for the lightest u.- I. d.-Avarkov, whose gluon fur coat has an energy of about 300 MeV.
Quarks that define the main physical properties of particles are called valence quarks. In addition to valence quarks, there are virtual couples of particles - quarks and antiquarks, which are emitted and absorbed by gluons for a very short time.
(Where E. - Virtual pair energy), which is happening with a violation of the law of conservation of energy in accordance with the ratio of the uncertainty of Heisenberg. Virtual couples of quarks called quarters of the sea or marine quarks . Thus, the structure of hadrons includes valence and sea quarks and gluons.
The main feature of all quarks is that they are owners of the corresponding strong charges. Strong field charges have three equal varieties (instead of one electric charge in the theory of electric forces). In the historically current terminology, these three types of charge call the colors of quarks, namely: conventionally red, green and blue. Thus, each quark in the table. 1 and 2 may be in three hypostatas and is a color particle. Mixing all three colors, just as it takes place in optics, gives white color, that is, discolor the particle. All observed hadrons are colorless.
| Quark | u. (Up) | d. (DOWN) | s. (Strange) | c. (Charm) | b. (Bottom) | t. (TOP) |
| Mass m 0. | (1.5-5) MeV / C 2 | (3-9) MeV / C 2 | (60-170) MeV / C 2 | (1.1-4.4) GeV / C 2 | (4.1-4.4) GeV / C 2 | 174 GeV / C 2 |
| Isospin I. | +1/2 | +1/2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Projection I. 3 | +1/2 | -1/2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Electric charge Q./e. | +2/3 | -1/3 | -1/3 | +2/3 | -1/3 | +2/3 |
| Weirdness S. | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Charm C. | 0 | 0 | 0 | +1 | 0 | 0 |
| Bottom B. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | -1 | 0 |
| Top T. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +1 |
The interactions of quarks are carried out eight different gluons. The term "gluon" means in English glue, that is, these field quanta there are particles that, as if glue quarks with each other. Like quarks, gluons are colored particles, but since each gluon changes the colors of two quarks at once (quark that emits gluon, and quark that absorbed the gluon), then the gluon is painted twice, carrying the color and antitzvet, usually different from color .
Mass of the rest of the gluons, as well as the photon, is zero. In addition, gluons are electrically neutral and not possess a weak charge.
The hadrons are also accepted to divide on stable particles and resonances: baryon and meson. 
The resonances are characterized by an extremely small lifetime (~ 10 -20 -10 -24 c), since their decay is due to strong interaction.
Tens of such particles were open to American physicist L.V. Alvarez. Since the path of such particles to decay is so small that they cannot be observed in detectors registering traces of particles (such as bubble chamber, etc.), they were all found indirectly, according to the presence of peaks depending on the probability of interaction of various particles with each other Energy. Figure 1 explains what said. The figure shows the dependence of the cross section of the interaction (proportional to the magnitude of the probability) of a positive peony $ \\ pi ^ + $ with a proton p. From the kinetic energy of the peony. At energy about 200 MeV, peak is visible during the section. Its $ \\ gamma \u003d $ 110 MeV, and the total mass of the $ \\ delta ^ (++) $ is $ t ^ (") _ (max) + m_p c ^ 2 + m_ \\ pi c ^ 2 \u003d 1232 / C 2, where $ t ^ (") _ (max) $ is the kinetic energy of the collision of particles in the system of their center of mass. Most of the resonances can be considered as an excited state of stable particles, as they have the same quark composition as their stable analogues, although the mass of resonances is more due to the excitation energy.
Quartovaya model of hadron
The quark model of hadrons will begin to describe with the pattern of power lines emanating from the source - quark with a color charge and ending on the antiquarian (Fig. 2, b.). For comparison in Fig. 2, and we show that in the case of electromagnetic interaction, the power lines differ from their source - electric charge fan, for virtual photons emitted simultaneously source do not interact with each other. As a result, we get the law of the coulon.
In contrast to this picture, gluons themselves have colored charges and interact strongly with each other. As a result, instead of a fan of power lines, we have a harness shown in Fig. 2, b.. The harness is extended between the quark and the antiquarian, but the most amazing thing is that the gluons themselves, having colored charges, become sources of new gluons, the number of which increases as they are removed from the quark. 
This pattern of interaction corresponds to the dependence of the potential energy of the interaction between quarks from the distance between them shown in Fig. 3. Namely: up to the distance R. \u003e 10 -13 cm The dependence U (R) has a funnel character, and the strength of the color charge in this area of \u200b\u200bdistances is relatively small, so that the quarks are R. \u003e 10 -15 cm in the first approximation can be considered as free, non-benefit particles. This phenomenon has a special name of the asymptotic freedom of quarks at small R.. However R. More Some Critical $ R_ (CR) \\ APPROX 10 ^ (- 13) $ cm The value of potential interaction energy U.(R.) becomes directly proportional R.. From here directly follows F. = -du/dr. \u003d const, that is, does not depend on the distance. No other interactions that physicists have previously studied, did not have such an unusual property.
Calculations show that the forces acting between the quark and the antiquarian really starting with $ R_ (CR) \\ APPROX 10 _ (- 13) $ cm, cease dependent on the distance, remaining at the level of a huge value close to 20 tons. At a distance R. ~ 10 -12 cm (equal to the radius of middle atomic nuclei) Color forces with more than 100 thousand times more electromagnetic forces. If we compare colorful power with nuclear forces between the proton and the neutron inside the atomic nucleus, it turns out that the color force is thousands of times more! Thus, a new grandiose picture of the color forces in nature opened before physicists, for many orders of magnitude excellent known nuclear forces. Of course, immediately the question of whether such strength is possible to work as a source of energy. Unfortunately, the answer to this question is negative.
Naturally, another question arises: what distances R. between quarks Potential energy is growing linearly with increasing R.? 
The answer is simple: at long distances, the harness of the power lines is torn, as it is energetically more profitable to form a gap with the birth of a quark-antiquark pair of particles. This happens when the potential energy at the break site is greater than the mass of quark and antiquark. The process of breaking the harness of the powered lines of the gluon field is shown in Fig. 2, in.
Such qualitative ideas about the birth of a quark-antiquark make it possible to understand why single quarks are not observed at all and cannot be observed in nature. Quarks forever enclosed inside the hadrons. This phenomenon of non-liberty quarks is called confiniment . At high energies, the harness can be more profitable to break immediately in many places, forming a variety of $ Q \\ Tilde Q $ -par. In this way we approached the problem of multiple birth quark anti-quarter pairs and the formation of tough quark jets.
Consider first the structure of light hadrons, that is, mesons. They consist of how we have already spoken, from one quark and one antiquark.
It is extremely important that both partners of the pair have the same color charge and the same anti-transparent (for example, a quark of blue and antiquarian anti-system), so that their steam, regardless of the quark flavors, does not have colors (and we observe colorless particles).
All quarks and antiquarks have spin (in shares from h.) equal to 1/2. Therefore, the total spin of the combination of quark with antiquarian is equal to either 0, when the backs are anti-parallel, or 1, when the backs are parallel to each other. But the spin particles may be more than 1, if the quarks themselves rotate for any orbits inside the particle.
In tab. 3 shows some paired and more complex combinations of quarks with an indication of which previously known adronons of the combination of quarks correspond to.
| Quark | Mesons | Quark | Barions | |||
| J.=0 | J.=1 | J.=1/2 | J.=3/2 | |||
| particles | resonances | particles | resonances | |||
| $ \\ pi ^ + $ |
$ \\ rho ^ + $ |
uUU. | $ \\ Delta ^ (++) $ |
|||
| $ \\ tilde u d $ | $ \\ pi ^ - $ |
$ \\ rho ^ - $ |
uUD. | p. |
$ \\ Delta ^ + $ |
|
| $ U \\ Tilde U - D \\ Tilde D $ | $ \\ pi ^ 0 $ |
$ \\ rho ^ 0 $ |
uDD. | n. (neutron) |
\\ Delta ^ 0 (Delta0) |
|
| $ u \\ tilde u + d \\ tilde d $ | $ \\ eta $ |
$ \\ omega $ |
dDD. | $ \\ Delta ^ - $ |
||
| $ D \\ Tilde S $ | $ k ^ 0 $ |
$ k ^ 0 * $ |
uus. | $ \\ Sigma ^ + $ |
$ \\ Sigma ^ + * $ |
|
| $ u \\ tilde s $ | $ k ^ + $ |
$ k ^ + * $ |
uDS. | $ \\ Lambda ^ 0 $ |
$ \\ Sigma ^ 0 * $ |
|
| $ \\ tilde u s $ | $ k ^ - $ |
$ k ^ - * $ |
dDS | $ \\ Sigma ^ - $ |
$ \\ Sigma ^ - * $ |
|
| $ C \\ Tilde D $ | $ D ^ + $ |
$ D ^ + * $ |
uSS. | $ \\ Xi ^ 0 $ |
$ \\ Xi ^ 0 * $ |
|
| $ C \\ Tilde S $ | $ D ^ + _ S $ |
$ D ^ + _ s * $ |
dSS. | $ \\ Xi ^ - $ |
$ \\ Xi ^ - * $ |
|
| $ C \\ Tilde C $ | Charmonium | $ J / \\ psi $ |
sSS. | $ \\ Omega ^ - $ |
||
| $ b \\ tilde b $ | Bottonium | Ipsylon | uDC | $ \\ Lambda ^ + _ C $ (Lambda CE +) |
||
| $ C \\ Tilde U $ | $ D ^ 0 $ |
$ D ^ 0 * $ |
uUC. | $ \\ Sigma ^ (++) _ C $ |
||
| $ B \\ Tilde U $ | $ B ^ - $ |
$ B * $ |
uDB. | $ \\ Lambda_b $ |
||
Of the most studied mesons and meson resonances, the largest group is the light neurotic particles that have quantum numbers. S. = C. = B. \u003d 0. This group includes about 40 particles. Table 3 begins with peonies $ \\ pi $ ±, 0, open by English physicist S.F. Powell in 1949. Charged peonies live about 10 -8 s, decaying the leptons in the following schemes:
$ \\ pi ^ + \\ to \\ mu + \\ nu _ (\\ mu) $ and $ \\ pi ^ - \\ to \\ mu ^ - + \\ tilde \\ nu _ (\\ mu) $.
Their "relatives" in table. 3 - Resonances $ \\ rho $ ±, 0 (ro-mesons) have unlike peonies spin J. \u003d 1, they are unstable and live only about 10 -23 s. The cause of the decay of $ \\ rho $ ±, 0 is a strong interaction.
The cause of the decay of charged peonies is due to weak interaction, namely the fact that the components of the quarks are capable of emitting and absorbing as a result of weak interaction for a short time t. In accordance with the relation (4), virtual calibration bosons: $ u \\ to d + w ^ + $ or $ d \\ to u + w ^ - $, and, unlike leptons, the transitions of one generation in another generation quark, for example, are carried out, for example $ u \\ to b + w ^ + $ or $ u \\ to s + w ^ + $, etc., although such transitions are significantly more rare than transitions within one generation. At the same time, with all such transformations, the electric charge in the reaction is saved.
Study of mesons including s.- I. c.The welding, led to the discovery of several dozen strange and charmed particles. Their research is carried out now in many scientific centers of the world.
Study of mesons including b.- I. t.- welding, intensively started at accelerators, and we will not talk about them in more detail yet.
Let us turn to the consideration of heavy hadrons, that is, Barione. All of them are composed of three quarks, but there are all three varieties of color, since, as well as the mesons, all the baryons are colorless. Quarks inside bariones may have an orbital movement. In this case, the total spin of the particle will exceed the total spin of quarks equal to 1/2 or 3/2 (if the backs of all three quarks are parallel to each other).
Barione with minimal mass is proton p. (See Table 3). It is from protons and neutrons that all atomic cores of chemical elements consist. The number of protons in the kernel determines its total electrical charge Z..
Another main particle of atomic nuclei is neutron n.. The neutron is a bit heavier proton, it is unstable and in a free state with the time of life about 900 s decays to proton, electron and neutrino. In tab. 3 shows the quark state of the proton uUD. and neutron uDD.. But with the back of this combination of quarks J. \u003d 3/2 The resonances of $ \\ delta ^ + $ and $ d ^ 0 $ are formed, respectively. All other biarons consisting of more severe quarks s., b., t., have a substantially large mass. Among them, it was of particular interest W. - - Gyperon, consisting of three strange quarks. It was opened first on paper, that is, is calculated, using the ideas of the quark structure of the barion. All the basic properties of this particle were predicted, then confirmed by experiments.
Many experimentally observed facts convincingly speak now about the existence of quarks. In particular, we are talking about the opening of a new process in the reaction of the collision of electrons and positrons, leading to the formation of quark-anti-wake jets. The diagram of this process is shown in Fig. 4. The experiment is made on collides in Germany and the USA. The figure shows the arrow directions of beams e. + I. e. -, and from the point of their collision departure quark q. and $ \\ tilde q $ antique under an anti-aircraft angle of $ \\ theta $ to flight direction e. + I. e. -. Such a birth $ Q + \\ Tilde Q $ pair occurs in the reaction
$$ E ^ + + E ^ - \\ To \\ Gamma_ (Wirth) \\ To Q + \\ Tilde Q $$
As we have said, the harness of the power lines (more often the strings say) with a sufficiently high tension rushing to the components. 
With high energy quark and antiquark, as mentioned earlier, the string is torn in many places, as a result of which in both directions, two narrow beams of secondary colorless particles are formed along the flight line quark q and antiquarka, as shown in Fig. 4. Such beams of particles are called jets. Frequently often on experience there is a formation of three, four or more particle jets at the same time.
In experiments, which were conducted with superphan energies in the space rays, in which the author of this article took part, as if photographs of the formation of the formation of many jets. The fact is that the harness or string is one-dimensional and therefore the formation centers of three, four or more jets are also located along a straight line.
The theory describing strong interactions is called quantum chromodynamica or abbreviated QCD . It is much more complicated by the theory of electrical interactions. Especially successfully, the CCD describes the so-called hard processes, that is, the processes of the interaction of particles with a large gear transmission between the particles. Although the creation of the theory is not yet completed, many theoretical physicists are already engaged in the creation of the "great association" - the associations of quantum chromodynamics and the theory of electrical interaction into a single theory.
In conclusion, we briefly focus on whether six leptons and 18 multicolored quarks (and their anti-patches) are exhausted, as well as quanta fundamental fields - photon, W. ± -, Z. 0 -Bosons, eight gluons and, finally, quanta gravitational field - gravitons The entire arsenal of truly elementary, more precisely, fundamental particles. Apparently, no. Most likely, the described patterns of particles and fields are the reflection of only our knowledge at the present time. No wonder now there are many theoretical ideas in which a large group is introduced on the observed so-called supersymmetric particles, an octet of superheavy quarks and much more.
Obviously, modern physics is still far from constructing a complete particle theory. Perhaps the great physicist Albert Einstein was the right, believing that only the consideration of gravity, despite its seemingly apparent role in the micrometer, would allow to build a strict particle theory. But all this is already in the XXI century or even later.
Literature
1. Okun L.B. Physics of elementary particles. M.: Science, 1988.
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Reviewer Articles L.I. Sarychev
S. A. Slavinsky Moscow Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny Moscow region
