According to the chronicle tradition, the foundations of the Christian faith were brought to Russia by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called in the middle of the 1st century A.D. The penetration and spread of Christianity among the East Slavic tribes was due to the following factors:

Trade, economic and spiritual and religious ties with Byzantium;

The gradual evolution of paganism towards monotheism;

State formation process;

The need to strengthen the power of the Kiev prince:

The development of feudal relations and the need to justify social inequality;

The need to familiarize Russia with the common European political realities, spiritual and cultural values.

Due to the peculiarities of the geopolitical position of Russia between Europe and Asia, Prince Vladimir had a wide religious and civilizational choice. Theoretically, Russia could adopt one of three religions, which were professed by neighboring states: Islam - Volga Bulgaria, Judaism - Khazar Kaganate, Eastern Christianity - Byzantium, or Western - most European countries. The choice of Orthodoxy is explained by the following factors:

The universal character of the doctrine, acceptable to all people;

The principle of the domination of secular power over spiritual;

The influence of Byzantium and the need to strengthen the military-political alliance with this state;

Missionary activity of Cyril and Methodius, baptism of Princess Olga;

The ability to perform divine services in their native language, the attractiveness of the decoration of temples.

In 988, a mass baptism of the inhabitants of Kiev took place in the Dnieper. After that, the priests, with the active support of the squad, baptized residents of other Russian cities. The peculiarity of the Christianization of Rus became dual faith, i.e. preservation of a number of pagan rituals and beliefs.

The history of the Orthodox Church in Russia begins with the formation of the Kiev Metropolis, dependent on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Patriarch of Constantinople had the right to:

Bless the metropolitans to the pulpit;

The right of trial over the metropolitan;

The right to resolve religious and ritual differences.

In the history of the Kiev metropolis, only two metropolitans were Russian: Hilarion, elected in 1051 and Clement in 1147.

The Russian Church was divided into dioceses headed by bishops, first into 6 (X century), then 15 (XIII century). The higher clergy of the Kiev Church was supported by state support - tithes from the prince's income. There were other sources of income: trade and court duties, monastic estates.

The second stage in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church is the Moscow one (XIII-XIY centuries). During this period, the church was a unifying force in the conditions of feudal fragmentation and the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Russian principalities had to fight against the Western European invaders. Prince of Novgorod Alexander Nevsky refused an alliance with the Catholic Church in exchange for military assistance and was subsequently canonized in the Orthodox Church.

During this period, the throne of the Metropolitan of All Russia was transferred to Moscow. Metropolitan Alexy and Abbot Sergius of Radonezh made a significant contribution to the national liberation movement.

In the middle of the XY century. The Russian Orthodox Church became autocephalous. In 1438, a council took place in Florence, at which a union was adopted between the Pope and the Byzantine patriarch Joseph, who recognized the supremacy of Rome. Metropolitan Isidor, who headed the Russian Church, supported the union, but the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II and the Moscow clergy accused Constantinople of apostasy and deposed Isidor. In 1448 a council was convened in Moscow and the Ryazan bishop Jonah was appointed metropolitan.

At the end of the XY century. The Russian Orthodox Church faced the heresies of the Jews and the strigolniki. The heretics rejected the Trinity of God, the divinity of Jesus Christ, did not recognize the church sacraments and hierarchy.

The polemics of the Josephites, led by Joseph Volotsky, and the non-possessors, led by Nil Sorsky, had a great resonance in the public life of Russia. The first defended the right of the church and monasteries to land ownership and recognized the supremacy of secular power, arguing that the power of the prince was from God. The non-possessors were in favor of an independent church and opposed the accumulation of wealth by the clergy.

Metropolitan Macarius crowned Ivan IY the Terrible on the kingdom, affirming the idea of ​​the divinity of royal power. In the middle of the XYI century. the canonization of 39 Russian saints takes place, the unification of rituals and cults. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 introduced the church rank of archpriest, who monitored the discipline of the clergy, consolidated the customs of being baptized with two fingers, making a procession in the direction of the sun (salting), etc.

As a result of the strengthening of the Moscow centralized state, it became possible to establish the patriarchate in 1589. Job became the first Russian patriarch. The third stage in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church - Patriarchal 1589-1700. After the death of Boris Godunov and his son, Patriarch Job refused to recognize the power of the impostor False Dmitry I, for which he was exiled to a monastery. Another outstanding personality of the Time of Troubles was Patriarch Hermogenes, who, under the conditions of the Polish-Swedish intervention, defended the idea of ​​an Orthodox kingdom. From 1619 to 1633 the Moscow patriarch was the father of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich - Filaret. He became a co-ruler of his son and received the title of "great sovereign".

In the middle of the XYII century. there was a split in the Russian Orthodox Church, which became a consequence of the church reform. The main reason for the reform was the implementation of the doctrine of the monk Philotheus "Moscow - the Third Rome", which established the historical continuity of Moscow in relation to the first Rome, "which fell into the Latin heresy", and the second Rome - Constantinople, captured by the Turks in 1453. This concept ensured the national unity of the state and the right to spread Orthodoxy outside of Russia. To turn Russia into the center of Orthodoxy, it was necessary to correct the liturgical books and unify the rituals according to the Greek standards. In addition, many errors and discrepancies have accumulated in the books. The reform was also facilitated by the development of printing.

Patriarch Nikon (1652-1666) played an important role in carrying out church reform. In the course of the reforms, the two-finger sign was replaced by the three-finger one, instead of "Jesus" they began to write "Jesus", along with the eight-pointed cross, they recognized the four-pointed one, they began to walk around the altar against the movement of the sun, etc. There have been changes in icon painting, church architecture and music.

But the reforms were not accepted by everyone. Many priests and lay people opposed the Greek patterns, considering them a deviation from the true faith. Archpriest Avvakum became the leader of the Old Believers. The followers of the old faith fled to the remote corners of Russia - to the North, to Siberia. Self-immolation, "patronizing", social unrest became acts of protest.

During the period of the reform, a conflict occurred between Nikon and the tsar, Alexei Mikhailovich. At the heart of the conflict is the question of the relationship between secular and spiritual authorities. The patriarch's idea that "the priesthood is higher than the kingdom" led to his overthrow. Church Cathedral 1666-1667 deprived Nikon of his dignity and finally approved the reforms, accusing the Old Believers of schism.

The consequences of these events were:

The emergence of the Old Believer Church;

Confirmation of the new rite of the Church;

Assertion of the priority of secular power over spiritual;

Loss of the monopoly on ideology by the Church;

Development of secular culture and social thought.

The official Church imposed an anathema on the Old Believers, which was lifted only in 1971.

Among the Old Believers, two main directions can be distinguished - the priest's and the bespopovtsy. Bespopovtsy believe that the post-reform clergy is wrong and has no right to exist. They preserved only two sacraments - baptism and confession. Popovtsy retained the priesthood.

The synoidal period in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church (1700-1917) began after the death of Patriarch Adrian. The new patriarch, Peter I, was not allowed to be elected, and the Church was headed by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Stephen Yavorsky. The tsar subordinated the clergy to the Monastic order, transferred the clergy to a salary, carried out a partial secularization of church lands.

In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, according to which the patriarchal administration was replaced by the synodal one. The Most Holy Governing Synod was headed by the Chief Prosecutor and consisted of. The church reforms of Peter contributed to an even greater subordination of the church to the state.

At the end of the XYIII century. The church lost almost all of its land holdings, and its property fell under state control. In the XYIII century. the missionary activity of the Church was actively developing, contributing to the spread of Orthodoxy in Siberia, the Far East, and the Caucasus.

The synodal period is characterized by the revival of monastic life and eldership. The elders of Optina Hermitage - Seraphim of Sarov (1760-1833), Ambrose Optinsky (1812-1821), John of Kronstadt (1829-1908) - gained special fame.

In the XIX century. a large number of theological educational institutions appeared. Under Alexander I, they were combined into one system. In the middle of the 19th century. the number of clergy reached 60 thousand people. Until the middle of the century, the clergy was a closed class, but in 1867 young men of all classes were allowed to enter seminaries. By 1917, there were 57 seminaries and 4 theological academies.

In August 1917, the All-Russian Local Council of the ROC began work in Moscow, which lasted until 1918. On October 28, 1917, a decision was made to restore the patriarchate. Tikhon was elected the new patriarch.

Under Soviet rule, a number of legislative acts were adopted that not only separated the church from the state, but also placed it in a discriminated position. During the civil war, the church and clergy were severely persecuted. For 1918-1922. 27 bishops were arrested, and 40 thousand remained of more than one hundred thousand priests.

In February 1922, the state confiscated jewelry from the church to fight hunger. Patriarch Tikhon sent a message in which he allowed the voluntary donation of valuables, with the exception of sacred items. Repressions continued during the confiscation of church property, more than eight thousand priests died.

To establish civil peace and end the persecution of the clergy, Patriarch Tikhon in June 1923 recognized the legality of Soviet power. The main task of the patriarch was to preserve the canonical integrity of the church, the purity of doctrine in the face of a powerful anti-religious campaign.

After the death of Tikhon in April 1925, the church was headed by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan Sergius. In his declaration of 1927, he declared the loyalty of the Church to the Soviet regime in civil terms, without any concessions in matters of faith. This statement did not stop the repressions by the end of the 30s. in the USSR, only a few hundred churches operated and only four bishops remained in office. All monasteries and theological schools were closed.

On the first day of the Great Patriotic War, Metropolitan Sergius, in his Address, called on the Orthodox to defend the sacred land of the Fatherland from invaders. The Russian Orthodox Church has done a lot to strengthen the patriotic feelings of the Soviet people. The church donated more than 300 million rubles to the defense fund; it financed the construction of the Dmitry Donskoy tank column and the Alexander Nevsky air squadron.

In September 1943, the patriarchate was restored. In February 1945, Metropolitan Alexy of Leningrad was elected patriarch to replace the deceased Sergius. The relaxation of the first post-war years led to an increase in the number of active churches, the opening of two theological academies and eight seminaries. But the Church was forbidden to conduct any other activity other than worship and the training of priests.

In 1961, the ROC joined the World Council of Churches. In the 70s. Patriarch Pimen was active in anti-war activities. On his initiative, the World Conference "Religious Leaders for Lasting Peace, Disarmament and Fair Relations between Nations" was held in Moscow.

The situation in the Church changed radically in the mid-1980s. In the anniversary year of 1988, more than a thousand parishes were opened, and the enrollment in theological seminaries was increased. Throughout the country, celebrations were held to mark the 1000th anniversary of the baptism of Rus.

In May 1990, after the death of Pimen, Alexy II became the new Patriarch. In the 90s. there was a genuine separation of church from state. The state no longer promoted atheism. The religious organization was recognized as a legal entity with the right to own property, engage in social, missionary, and charitable activities.

In August 2000, at the Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church, the Fundamentals of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church were adopted. This document formulates and systematizes the position of the Church on a wide range of issues - economic, political, moral.

In May 2007, the "Act of Canonical Communion" was signed between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. This document was the result of a long-term work to eliminate contradictions and unite the Churches on a mutually acceptable basis.

In January 2009, Kirill became the new Patriarch.

Literature

1. Gribanov A. Orthodoxy / A. Gribanov // Science and life. - 1993. - No. 6.

2. Kartashov, A.V. History of the Russian Church. In 2 volumes / A. V. Kartashov. - M., 1993.

3. Men, A. Orthodox worship. Sacrament. Word. Rite of passage. / A. Men. - M., 1989.

4 Orthodoxy: Dictionary. - M., 1989.

5. Kolesnikova, V.S. Russian Orthodox Holidays / V.S. Kolesnikova. - 2nd ed., Revised and supplemented. - M., 1996.

6. Regelson, L.L. The Tragedy of the Russian Church 1917-1945 / L.L. Regelson. - M., 1999.

7. Nikitin, V. New holiday - a holiday of church unity. Act of Canonical Communion of Russian Orthodox Churches \ V. Nikitin // Science and Religion. - 2007. - No. 11.

8. History of religions in Russia: textbook / ed. I.Ya. Trofimchuk. - M., 1995.

9. A new Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia was elected. // Science and religion. 2009. No. 2.

10. Babkin M.A. The local council of 1917-1918: the question of the conscience of the Orthodox flock. // Questions of history. 2010. No. 4.

11. Vyatkin V.V. Church policy of Anna Ioannovna. // Questions of history. 2010 No. 8.

12. Pashkov V. Monasticism in Russia in the mirror of statistics. // Science and religion. 2010. No. 8

13. Myalo K. Involvement of God or denial of God? (Russian Orthodox Church and Soviet heritage). // Science and religion. 2010. No. 9.

14. Peter I and the Patriarchs // Science and Religion. - 2006 - 2006. - No. 12.

15. Russian Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches: prospects for cooperation. // Science and religion. - 2005. - No. 6.

16 http: // www.russion-ortodoks-church.org.ru/

Topic 8

Catholicism

Plan:

1. Features of the doctrine and cult of Catholicism.

2 Organizational structure of the Roman Catholic Church.

3. A short history of the Roman Catholic Church.

1. Features of the doctrine and cult of Catholicism.

The largest variety of Christianity is Catholicism. In the modern world, more than 1 billion people are adherents of Catholicism. Catholicism is predominantly widespread in Western, South-Eastern and Central Europe. In addition, his influence covers the majority of the population of Latin America and a third of the population of Africa. The positions of Catholicism are also strong in the USA.

The doctrine of Catholicism is based on the common Christian Creed, which includes 12 dogmas and seven sacraments. But the Catholic creed has its own differences. The source of Catholic doctrine is not only Holy Scripture, but also Holy Tradition, which includes the decisions of not only the Ecumenical Councils, but also subsequent councils, the judgments of the popes and the most authoritative saints. In general, Catholicism is more susceptible to religious innovations than Orthodoxy.

One of the reasons for the church schism was the dogma of the "filioque" (Latin and from a son). He was received at the Council of Toledo in 589. In Catholicism, the Holy Spirit can come not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son. The veneration of the Virgin Mary is much more developed among Catholics - in 1854 the dogma of her Immaculate Conception was adopted, and in 1950 - the dogma of the resurrection and bodily ascension of the Virgin Mary.

In addition to the doctrine of hell and paradise, the Catholic Church formulated the dogma of purgatory - the place of residence of the souls of sinners, not burdened with mortal sins. The fire of purgatory removes sins before paradise. The dogma of purgatory was adopted by the Council of Florence in 1439 and finally approved by the Council of Triden in 1568.

In Catholicism, the doctrine of the stock of good deeds is widespread, according to which the church disposes of the stock of "super-deeds" accumulated through the activities of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, being the mystical body of the Savior. Relatives of the deceased can alleviate the fate of the soul in purgatory through prayers, divine services, donations to the church. The doctrine of the stock of good deeds was the basis for the practice of selling indulgences (letters of absolution) in the Middle Ages.

A feature of the Catholic doctrine is the dogma of the Pope's infallibility, adopted at the I-st ​​Vatican Council in 1870. According to this dogma, God Himself speaks through the mouth of the Pope at official speeches on questions of faith and morality.

The originality of Catholicism is also manifested in cult activity, including the celebration of the seven sacraments. The sacrament of baptism is performed by pouring water over or immersion in water. The sacrament of chrismation in Catholicism is called confirmation and is performed on children aged 7-12 years. The sacrament of the Eucharist is administered with the help of unleavened bread. The sacrament of repentance, most often an individual one, is performed in a special room - the confessional. The sacrament of blessing is performed on a dying person.

In Catholicism, since the 11th century, celibacy has been in effect - the obligatory celibacy of the clergy. All Catholic priests belong to one of the monastic orders. At present, the largest monastic orders are the Jesuits, Capuchins, Dominicans, Benedictines, and others. There are 150 monastic orders.

The cult of the saints and the blessed is quite well developed in Catholicism. Before Vatican II, Catholic services were conducted in Latin, today in national languages.

Catholic churches are usually erected on a cross-shaped foundation, which is designed to remind of the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The main part of the Catholic church is facing the West. In home prayer, Catholics also usually turn towards Rome, located in Western Europe, which symbolizes its recognition as the capital of the entire Christian world, and the Pope as the head of the entire Christian church.

Traditionally, the altar in the Catholic Church is open to all those present. The temple is dominated by sculptural images of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and saints. However, in all Catholic churches you can find fourteen icons depicting various stages of the "Way of the Lord".

In a Catholic church, believers sit during services and get up only when singing certain prayers. The service has a musical accompaniment: an organ or harmonium sounds.

Holidays are basically the same as in Orthodoxy, but celebrated according to the Gregorian calendar. But Catholics have several specific holidays: the holiday of the Heart of Jesus, the holiday of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, the holiday of the Assumption of the Mother of God. The Feast of Commemoration of the Dead (November 2) is established in memory of those who have passed away.

The most solemn holiday, the Nativity of Christ, is celebrated with three services: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the birth of Christ in the bosom of the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God, in the soul of the believer. On this day, a manger with a figurine of the infant Christ for worship is exhibited in churches. The Epiphany among Catholics is called the feast of the Three Kings - in memory of the appearance of Jesus Christ to the pagans and the worship of three kings.

The number of strict fasts in Catholicism has tended to decrease; now they are observed at the beginning of Great Lent, on the Friday before Easter and on Christmas Eve. During the fast, Catholics are allowed to eat fish, milk, eggs and butter.

The history of the Russian Orthodox Church begins in 988, when Prince Vladimir decided to baptize Russia. Today, after all the trials that have befallen the Russian Church, her revival is taking place, obviously for everyone.

The history of the Russian Orthodox Church begins in 988, when the Kiev prince Vladimir decided to baptize Russia. But even before that, there were Christians in Russia. Archaeological excavations indicate that Christians were in Russia before 988. Almost nothing is known about this part of the history of the Russian Church. In what capacity the Russian Christian communities existed, to whom they were subordinate - there is also no information about this.

In 988, along with the baptism of Rus, the first dioceses were formed - in Kiev, the Kiev metropolis, dominating the entire Russian Church, in 990 - the Rostov diocese, in 992 - the Novgorod diocese. During the period of the split of the state into specific principalities, each of them strove to have its own diocese, so as not to depend on others not only politically, but also spiritually. However, the total number of dioceses was not large - it did not exceed two dozen, and at the beginning of Nikon's reform there were 13 of them (14). Their dependence on the central metropolitanate was often conditional - for example, the Novgorod archbishop, who was one of the most important officials of the boyar republic, was elected virtually independently of Kiev.

The Russian Orthodox Church was dependent on the Patriarch of Constantinople, its heads - the metropolitans - were appointed from the capital of the Empire. Often these were Greeks who were not too interested in the development of the Russian Church.

The division of the church began with the conquest of part of the Russian lands by the Lithuanian principality, and then by the Lithuanian-Polish kingdom. The King of Poland and the Prince of Lithuania were interested in the formation of their own Orthodox metropolis, independent of Russia. Already in 1354, Roman was consecrated by the Metropolitan of Volyn-Litovsk, but this did not take root, and was repeated only once.

With the strengthening of Moscow, when it actually became the center of a unified Russian state, there was a need for a metropolitan who had his throne in Moscow. Jonah, who was elected in 1433, became such a metropolitan. However, his election was not followed by ordination, and two more metropolitans stayed in Kiev. And only after the flight of Isidore, everyone recognized Jonah. He was consecrated by the Metropolitan on December 15, 1448, but was not appointed from Constantinople. Thus, the Russian Church actually acquired independence - autocephaly. Later, avotkephaly was also recognized by Constantinople.

However, the Catholic Rzeczpospolita was interested in the subordination of Orthodoxy to the Pope. In the West, attempts began to transform the Russian Church into a Uniate Church. These attempts were successfully completed on December 25, 1595, with the signing of the Brest Union, according to which the church hierarchs, preserving the Orthodox ritual, assumed the leadership of the pope and the dogmas of the Catholic Church. The union was accepted by Metropolitan Michael of Kiev (Ragoza) and five more dioceses - Lutsk, Khelmsk, Brest-Vladimir, Pinsk, Polotsk, then Przemyshl, Smolensk (1626) and Lvov (1700). In parallel with the adoption of the union by the hierarchs and in fact the destruction of the hierarchy, the Orthodox union was forcibly implanted in individual parishes. However, not everyone accepted the union, and Orthodoxy existed for some time as an illegal community of separate parishes, not united hierarchically.

In 1622, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in order to calm the constant religious uprisings and tensions in Ukraine and Belarus, decided to renew the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Kiev. In 1622, for the first time in 27 years, a metropolitan appeared in Kiev, appointed from Constantinople. Until 1685, the Kiev metropolitans were exarchs of the Constantinople throne. However, the Uniates did not stop their activities, and under the last two metropolitans, the Orthodox Church was in great disarray from the Uniates. Finally, in 1685, the split in the Russian Church was overcome - the Kiev Metropolitanate became the diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church.

In the meantime, important changes have taken place in the ROC itself. In 1589 the Moscow Metropolitanate was transformed into the Patriarchate. The Patriarch has become an extremely important figure in Russian society. In 1652 Nikon became the patriarch. To strengthen the position of Russian Orthodoxy and raise its prestige, he carried out a liturgical reform (correction of service books and icons according to Byzantine models, adjustments in rituals, in particular, the writing of Jesus instead of Jesus, the introduction of the three-finger sign of the cross instead of the two-finger one, replacing the bows of the earth with belt bows, changing the direction of movement divine services (posolosn), the admission of the six-pointed cross along with the eight-pointed, the introduction of a regular church sermon). As a result of the reform, a split of the Church occurred, part of the population and clergy did not want to accept the changes. The Council of 1666-1667 anathematized all opponents of the reform, finally consolidating the split. The emerging movement of the Old Believers instantly disintegrated into many currents, often completely different from each other. Also, the Old Believers were protesting about the way the reforms were carried out - they were adopted not by a council, but solely by the patriarch.

A new turn in the history of the church took place in 1721. Peter I, dissatisfied with the existence of a powerful church figure, very authoritative in society - the patriarch - destroyed this office. At first, after the death of Adrian, in 1700 a new patriarch was not elected, but a locum tenens was appointed, and in 1721 the patriarchate itself was officially abolished and a collegial body was formed to lead the church - the Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor, who did not belong to the church. hierarchy, who was an ordinary tsarist official.

The synodal administration existed until 1917, when the patriarchate was restored at the local council after the October Revolution. Tikhon (Belavin) was elected patriarch. He anathematized Soviet power. The brutal persecution of the Church began, which continued throughout the entire period of the existence of Soviet power.

At the same time, a new schism shook the church. First, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, which was formed on the territory of the Ukrainian Republic, separated from it. However, it was soon destroyed and remained only among Ukrainian emigrants.

An opposition movement appeared in the church, called Renovationism. The beginning of the movement dates back to May 1922, it advocated a rapprochement between the church and the Soviet regime. During the period of the highest upsurge, it enjoyed the support of almost half of the ruling bishops (37 out of 73, and almost all Orthodox bishops were imprisoned). From the very beginning, it was heterogeneous and the various churches formed by the Renovationists never united. At a certain moment, Renovationism managed to bring the church closer to death - in some provinces there was not a single temple, not a single priest, but soon they began to disappear (when they were no longer useful to the authorities) and returned to the ROC. In 1946, its last foci disappeared.

After the death of Tikhon in 1924 and until 1943, the ROC again did not have a ruling patriarch. In the 1930s, groups, sects and churches separated from the ROC, which recognized Soviet power, and did not recognize the new power, considering it "the power of the Antichrist", and the Church as "the servant of the Antichrist." Some of these groups still exist in small numbers.

The powerful flourishing of the church, accompanying the introduction of perestroika and glasnost into the USSR, was overshadowed by two events - in 1990 the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church was restored and thus the end of the unity of Orthodoxy in Ukraine was put. In 1991 the autonomous Ukrainian Orthodox Church was formed, and in 1993 its Metropolitan Filaret passed to the Autocephalists. However, this could not destroy the ROC in Ukraine, and to this day it is the most numerous confession in the country. The second is the separation of the Estonian Diocese and its annexation to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

But, despite individual episodes, the revival of Orthodoxy is taking place today, obviously for everyone. Throughout Russia and the near abroad, the number of churches and parishes is growing. The social influence of the church is also growing.

The content of the article

RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. Tradition links the spread of the Orthodox faith within the Russian borders with the preaching of the Apostle Andrew, who, as early church writers testify, got Scythia by lot for evangelism (the Byzantine writers use the term "Scythians" or "Tavro-Scythians" to denote the Russian people). Subsequently, the veneration of St. Andrew was the basis of the church unity of Russia and Byzantium, which was also under his patronage. The legend about the visit of Russia by the Apostle Andrew is recorded in the oldest Russian historical chronicle Tale of Bygone Years... According to this legend, St. Andrei, following the waterway known as the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", visited Kiev and reached Novgorod.

CHRISTIANIZATION OF RUSSIA (9-11 centuries)

The Slavs made repeated raids, invading the borders of the Byzantine Empire. In 860, the Russian fleet appeared right under the walls of Constantinople. The response to the military action of the Slavs was the intensification of the missionary activity of the Byzantine Church among the neighbors of the empire. In 963, the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius, Equal to the Apostles, were sent to the Slavic lands and began their apostolic mission in Great Moravia. Indirect evidence suggests that Russia also entered the sphere of activity of Cyril and Methodius. The circular epistle of the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius (9th century), addressed to the heads of the Eastern Churches, testifies that "a people surpassing all others with ferocity and bloodthirstiness, called Ros, received the bishop and pastors, and also accepted Christian worship with great zeal and joy." It was the so-called. the first baptism of Russia. However, it had no practical consequences, except that the contacts of the Slavs with the Christian empire intensified. Sources abound in information about baptized merchants "from the Russians" who visited Constantinople, about the Varangians who entered the military service of the emperor and returned to Russia as Christians, contributing to the spread of Christianity in the Russian state. The chronicle reports about the first holy Russian martyrs Saint Theodore and his son John: "But that Varangian came from the Greeks and kept the faith of the Chresteians."

A new stage in the Christianization of Rus came after the death of Prince Igor, when his wife Princess Olga (c. 945 - c. 969) took the reins and was baptized in Constantinople. Her plans undoubtedly included the introduction of the church organization into Russian society. In 959 Olga turned to the German king Otto I with a request to send a bishop and priests to Russia. Bishop Adalbert was sent to Russia. However, for reasons unknown to us, he was unable to cope with the task of establishing a new diocese. After Olga's death and in connection with the coming to power of Olga's warlike son, the pagan Svyatoslav Igorevich, a pagan reaction ensued. The further prehistory of the baptism of Rus is reconstructed from Byzantine, Russian and Syrian sources as follows. In 987, the rebellion of the commander Barda Phocas began in Byzantium. Emperor Basil II (ruled 976-1025), in view of the danger looming over the Macedonian dynasty, sent an embassy to Kiev and asked Prince Vladimir for military assistance. In return, he offered him the hand of his sister, Princess Anne, which undoubtedly implied the baptism of the Russian prince. The Russian army sent to Byzantium decided the confrontation between Barda Phocas and Basil II in favor of the emperor, but he was in no hurry to send the bride promised to the prince to Kiev. Then Vladimir besieged Korsun (Chersonesos), the main fortress of the Byzantines in the Crimea, and took it, after which Anna arrived in Korsun and their wedding took place here (989–990). Upon Vladimir's return to Kiev, a mass baptism of the population began in Kiev and Novgorod, and no later than 997 the Russian Metropolitanate was established, subordinate to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. It is believed that at the same time as the metropolis, episcopal sees were founded in Belgorod, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk and Pereyaslavl. Cm... METROPOLITANTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. For the maintenance of the church, Prince Vladimir put the so-called. tithe.

Under the son of Prince Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, the role of the church in the state system was strengthened. This is evidenced primarily by the monumental church construction: it was during this period that the majestic Sophia Cathedrals were erected in Kiev, Novgorod, Polotsk. Patronizing the church, Yaroslav contributed to the emergence of the first Russian monasteries, libraries and schools. During his reign, the first Russian original literary works were created ( A word about law and grace Metropolitan Hilarion). At the same time, the church The charter written under Vladimir. The charter Yaroslav was already compiled taking into account local customs. The most important events in the church life of the era of Yaroslav the Wise were the glorification of the first Russian saints - princes Boris and Gleb (under Yaroslav their relics were found and transferred to a church specially built for them), as well as the election of the first Russian bishop, Hilarion, to the metropolitanate. Cm... BORIS AND GLEB; HILARION. Under the sons of Yaroslav, the decisive role of the princely power in the Christianization of Rus was preserved. According to the chronicles, it is known about the pagan disturbances that arose during this period, during which the prince and his squad acted as the support and protection of the bishop, while "the people are all idosh for the sorcerer." In the second half of the 11th century. the heyday of the ancient Russian Kievo-Pechersk monastery, which during this period turned into the leading religious and cultural center of Russia. Cm... KIEV-PECHERSK LAVRA . Here the all-Russian national chronicle was born ( Tale of Bygone Years), the traditions of Russian hagiography are laid (Nestorovo Reading about Boris and Gleb). The general rule of the Pechersk Lavra, borrowed from the Constantinople Studite monastery, was the basis on which other Russian monasteries were subsequently created. Natives of the Pechersk brethren occupied in the 11-12 centuries. episcopal sees, and cathedrals erected in dioceses were dedicated, like the cathedral church of the Pechersk monastery, to the Assumption of the Mother of God. As one of the ecclesiastical provinces of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, Russia did not avoid participating in the controversy with the "Latins" that arose in 1054 after the separation of the Western and Eastern Churches. Russian metropolitans and bishops responded to it with compositions that defended the dogmas of the Eastern Church.

RUSSIA BEFORE THE MONGOLO-TATAR INVASION (12-13 centuries)

By the middle of the 12th century. in ancient Russia, a polycentric state system was established, caused by feudal fragmentation. Under the new conditions, the metropolis turned out to be the only force capable of resisting centrifugal tendencies. However, before the metropolitans realized their historical mission, they were embroiled in a long confusion between the princes who fought for the Kiev throne. This struggle led to the fact that Metropolitan Michael II left Kiev, closing the Metropolitan Sophia Cathedral with a special manuscript. In response, the new Kiev prince Izyaslav (1114-1154) independently appointed the Russian bishop Clement Smolyatich to the metropolitanate. ( Cm... KLIMENT SMOLYATICH.) Many Russian hierarchs refused to recognize him as the head of the church. Many princes, opponents of Izyaslav, did not accept the metropolitan either. The metropolis was divided into two warring camps. Under these conditions, Clement Smolyatich behaved like a henchman of the Grand Duke, providing him with every possible support. When Izyaslav died, he immediately retired to Volhynia. Having seized Kiev, Yuri Dolgoruky sent to Constantinople for a new metropolitan. Soon Constantine II (1155-1159) arrived in Kiev. The excessively harsh measures he took (anathematizing Izyaslav and Clement) aggravated the turmoil. In 1158 Kiev passed into the hands of Mstislav Izyaslavich, who expelled Constantine and insisted on the return of Clement Smolyatich, while Rostislav Mstislavich stood for Constantine. As a result of the disputes, the princes came to a decision to ask Constantinople for a new hierarch. The sent Theodore died a year later, and John IV appeared in Kiev only two years after his death, since the Kiev prince did not want to receive him. Only the admonitions of the emperor Manuel II himself made the prince come to terms with this candidacy.

In the 1160s, Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky first tried to divide the Russian metropolis, with the goal of establishing an independent cathedra in the capital of his principality, Vladimir on the Klyazma. With this request, he turned to Constantinople to Patriarch Luke Chrysoverg. Despite the resolute refusal of the saint, Andrei Yurievich, as the metropolitan of the Vladimir land, "planted" a certain un-ordained Theodore. In 1169 Theodore went to Kiev, where, by order of Metropolitan Constantine II, he was arrested and executed: his right hand was cut off and his eyes were taken out. The unusual cruelty of the execution confirms the reality of the existing threat of dividing the metropolis. The unity of the metropolitanate was preserved, and the metropolitans later concluded for themselves that it was necessary to direct efforts to reconcile the princely groups and preserve the unity of the church.

At the beginning of the 13th century. Constantinople was captured by the crusaders, and for almost half a century it turned into the capital of the Latin Kingdom. The Patriarch of Constantinople left the city and moved to Nicaea. The victories of the knights contributed to the fact that the idea of ​​the subordination of the Russian Church to the power of Rome revived in the West. There are several known appeals to the Russian princes, written by the popes of Rome, in which they urged them to "submit to the light yoke of the Roman Church." In the large Russian cities that lay on the trade routes with the West, the missionary activity of Catholics exceeded the permissible limits. In 1233, Prince Vladimir was forced to expel the Dominicans from Kiev, who until then had their own monastery here.

RUSSIA UNDER THE RULE OF MONGOLO-TATAR (13-14 centuries)

In 1237–1240 Russia survived the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Russian cities were destroyed and burned. The princes lost their independence and had to ask the Mongol Khan for the right to the great reign. The Russian Church was going through a profound crisis. Under these conditions, the burden of metropolitan power was assumed by Cyril II, a protege of the Galician-Volyn prince. Cyril II entered into close cooperation with the Grand Duke of Vladimir Alexander Nevsky. The prince and the metropolitan agreed that at this stage, bloodless Russia needs a respite, which could only be given by the recognition of the power of the Mongol khan. This political move allowed Alexander Nevsky to gather forces in order to defend the north-western borders of Russia from the encroachments of the Teutonic Order. In turn, Metropolitan Kirill II directed efforts to restore the internal church life. The council convened by him in 1273 laid the foundation for the creation of a code of laws, the so-called Russian helmsman... The policy of the Mongols in relation to the church, which exempted the church from paying tribute, contributed to the rapid restoration of its strength. Metropolitan Kirill II did not tire of visiting the dioceses, but at the same time he remained in Vladimir for a long time and appeared less and less often in Kiev, which lay in ruins after the sack of 1240.

Maxim, who replaced Cyril II, finally chose Vladimir as his place of residence. The transfer of the Metropolitan See from Kiev to Vladimir was due not only to purely practical circumstances. Both contemporaries and historians regard it as a political act, as a result of which the authority of the princes of Vladimir increased, and the princes themselves acquired the opportunity to directly influence the policy of the metropolitan. The current situation caused the strongest discontent of the Galician princes. Threatening to come under the jurisdiction of Rome, they got the patriarch to establish an independent Galician metropolis. However, it did not last long. In 1305, when two applicants for the metropolitan dignity arrived in Constantinople, one from a Galician prince and the other from a Vladimir prince, the patriarch elected Peter, who had arrived from Volyn, as the primate of the Russian Church, and consecrated him to the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia. The attempt to divide the metropolitanate was repeated ten years later: on the initiative of the Lithuanian prince Gediminas, the Lithuanian metropolitanate was created, abolished only with the appointment of Metropolitan Theognost (1327 / 28-1353). The political development of Eastern Europe further and further divorced the historical destinies of southwestern and northwestern Russia, so that the final division of the metropolitanate became inevitable and was only a matter of time.

THE RISE OF THE MOSCOW KINGDOM (14-15 centuries)

Metropolitan Peter chose northwestern Russia as his place of residence. He connected the future of the Russian Church with the towering Moscow, choosing the Moscow prince as his companion. Peter's choice was symbolized in the act of his will, according to which Peter was buried in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, which from that moment became the resting place of the primates of the Russian Church. The Greek Theognost, who replaced Peter, arrived directly in Moscow and, occupying the metropolitan see, followed the line of Peter, supporting the Moscow prince and contributing to the growth of his authority among the Russian princes. During his lifetime, Theognost appointed Alexy as his successor, who came from an ancient boyar family. Constantinople sanctioned this election in view of the exceptional qualities of an outstanding political figure inherent in Alexy. Saint Alexy is noted for the fact that it was during this period that a metropolitan court was formed, similar in structure to the prince's court, and the church turned into a large landowner and its possessions were legally registered. The successes of the unifying policy of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich were also largely due to the authority that Metropolitan Alexy enjoyed in the Russian lands. More than once he managed to subdue the opponents of the Moscow prince and stop the princely conflicts, and he often resorted to very drastic measures. So, in order to suppress the enmity of the Nizhny Novgorod princes in 1362, Alexy ordered the closure of all the Nizhny Novgorod churches.

Strengthening Moscow could not please its main rival - the Grand Duke of Lithuania, whose ally was Mikhail Tverskoy. Lithuanian prince Olgerd “besieged” Constantinople with demands to place an independent metropolitan in Kiev so that his power would extend to the lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After unsuccessful attempts to reconcile Olgerd and Mikhail of Tverskoy with Alexy, Patriarch Philotheus resorted to a compromise, placing his former cell-attendant Cyprian as Metropolitan of Kiev on the condition that after Alexy's death he would lead the entire Russian Church. This measure had no effect, but only intensified the church turmoil. When, after the death of Alexis, Cyprian declared his rights to the metropolitanate, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich did not accept him, considering him a Lithuanian protege. Dmitry Ivanovich made several attempts to elevate one of his chosen ones to the metropolitan dignity, but none of them were crowned with success. The end of the turmoil was put by the death of Prince Dmitry in 1389.

The new Moscow ruler, Prince Vasily Dmitrievich, summoned Cyprian to Moscow. Taking into account the experience of the Troubles of 1375-1389, Cyprian paid special attention to the Lithuanian dioceses, repeatedly visiting them and maintaining friendly relations with the Lithuanian prince. The Metropolitan's actions were aimed at preserving the unity of the Metropolitanate and the peace within it. Metropolitan Cyprian put a lot of effort into the development of liturgical practice. He penned a number of significant liturgical works. On his initiative, the process of transition to a new liturgical charter, from the Studite to the Jerusalem one, began in the Russian Church. Cyprian and his successor Photius did much to settle the issues of ecclesiastical courts and ecclesiastical land tenure. However, in the agreement concluded between Vasily Dmitrievich and Cyprian, there is a clear tendency towards a reduction in the property and administrative privileges of the church. Thus, the church was obliged to participate in the payment of tribute, and it was also forbidden to ordain as priests and deacons of the grand ducal servants.

During the reign of Photius, a heretical movement of the shearers broke out in Pskov. Apparently, the teaching messages of Photius and other measures taken by him had an effect, since soon information about heresy disappears from the sources.

AUTOCEPHALOUS RUSSIAN CHURCH (15-16 centuries)

The main content of the next historical period, starting from the middle of the 15th century, is the formation of the autocephaly of the Russian Church and the determination of its legal status among the churches of the Christian world. In 1453, under the blows of the Turks, the Byzantine Empire fell, which traditionally acted as the guarantor of the preservation of Orthodoxy. Under these conditions, the positions of the Patriarchate of Constantinople were so weakened that it could not resist the final division of the Russian metropolitanate into Moscow and Kiev, and in Rome an unprecedented appointment of the metropolitan to the Kiev metropolis took place. Even before the fall of Constantinople in 1439, in search of allies to resist the Turks, the Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople agreed to conclude a union with the Catholics. The Uniate Council took place in Florence. However, his decision was not accepted by the majority of the hierarchs of the Eastern Church. The Russian Church also reacted negatively to them. The conclusion of the union put the Russian bishops in a difficult position. Following the tradition of “receiving” a metropolitan from Constantinople in the new conditions lost its relevance primarily because it did not meet the main requirement - to have an Orthodox metropolitan. Cm... UNIA.

After the death of Photius, the Ryazan bishop Jonah (1433) was named to the Russian metropolitan table. Difficult historical circumstances made it impossible for him to travel to Constantinople. When, in 1435, the embassy of Jonah was ready to leave, Moscow learned that Constantinople had appointed a supporter of the union, Isidore, to the Russian metropolitans. After long negotiations, not daring to break the tradition, Prince Vasily II received Isidor. Soon the new Metropolitan left Moscow for Florence to participate in the Uniate Council. He returned in 1441 and entered the city as a papal legate and cardinal. The Russian authorities, both secular and ecclesiastical, showed unanimity in their rejection of the newly made cardinal. Isidore was immediately captured and taken into custody. Basil II convened a church council, at which a message was drawn up addressed to the patriarch. It very clearly outlined the position of the Russian Church's rejection of Isidore as a hierarch who publicly preaches heresy, and also contained a request to allow a council of Russian bishops to independently supply metropolitans with their subsequent blessing in Constantinople. An embassy with a message was sent, but for unknown reasons returned before reaching Constantinople. By that time, Isidore was given the opportunity to flee, and in 1448 Prince Basil again convened a council, which this time consecrated Jonah to the rank of metropolitan. From that moment on, we can talk about the actual autocephaly of the Russian Church. Metropolitans following Jonah were ordained without any appeal to Constantinople. Henceforth, in the election and appointment of the metropolitan, they primarily attached importance to the concordant expression of the will of the predecessor metropolitan, the grand duke and the consecrated cathedral, which met canonical church norms and corresponded to the principle of a symphony of the kingdom and priesthood, on which the administration of the Orthodox state was based.

The growth of the authority of the church during this period was peculiarly reflected in the changes in the face of Russian holiness. Now it was replenished not by holy princes, but by saints and monks. Metropolitan Jonah already in 1448 established a church-wide celebration of St. Alexis, and in 1472 Metropolitan Philip established the day of commemoration of St. Jonah. The main problem faced by the Russian Church in the conditions of independence was the questions of internal order, opposition to Latinism and the struggle against heresies. The Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Casimir IV did not abandon their attempts to extend their power to the northern Russian lands. They even managed to get Patriarch Dionysius to transfer all the fullness of metropolitan power to Metropolitan Gregory of Kiev. A strong opposition was organized in Novgorod, agreeing to church subordination to Lithuania. Metropolitan Philip and Grand Duke Ivan III repeatedly appealed to the Novgorodians with admonitions to remain faithful to Orthodoxy, but the "great upheaval" continued. Under these conditions, the mutual decision of the prince and the metropolitan was the organization of a campaign against Novgorod, which was given the meaning of protecting Orthodoxy from Latinism. However, the “symphony of kingdom and priesthood” situation did not last long. Already the hierarchy of Metropolitan Gerontius (1473-1489) was marked by conflicts with the princely power. So, in 1479, a dispute broke out between the prince and the metropolitan about how to make the procession of the cross - "salting" or against the sun. Defending the walking against the sun, accepted in the Russian tradition, almost cost Gerontius the metropolitan dignity, although this time the prince resigned himself and admitted that he was wrong. Relations between the church and the Grand Duke in connection with the heresy of the Judaizers were very difficult during this period. The prince did not support the "searches" against heretics undertaken by the church. During his stay in Novgorod, Ivan III met the priests involved in the heretical movement, and invited them to Moscow, making them protopopes of the Kremlin cathedrals. Disagreements between the church and the prince continued until 1504, when nine heretics were excommunicated and sentenced to death. Council of 1503 discussed issues of church land tenure. Ivan III proposed a program for the alienation of the church's land holdings in favor of state power. In fact, this was the first offensive of the secular authorities on the property of the church, but the church hierarchs managed to defend their rights.

An important event in church life in the 16th century. the restoration of ties with the Patriarchate of Constantinople began: in 1518, the embassy of Patriarch Theolipt arrived in Moscow with a request for financial assistance. The title deeds testified to the recognition of the Metropolitan of Moscow by the patriarch.

A significant stage in the history of the Russian Church was the prelacy of Metropolitan Macarius (1542-1563). This pastor, on the one hand, managed to resist the chaos of boyar rule, on the other, to restrain the angry outbursts of the first Russian Tsar Ivan IV. During his primacy, a number of councils were held that were extremely important for the life of the church and state. The councils of 1547–1549 established an official church celebration for a large number of Russian saints, whose spontaneous veneration already had its own history. At the Council of 1551 (the Stoglavy Cathedral), the norm of the symphony of the royal and hierarchical power was legally enshrined - a change introduced in connection with the wedding to the kingdom of Ivan IV that took place in 1547. Here, the issue of the church's land holdings was raised again. Now the tsar succeeded in limiting the growth of church land tenure by a number of measures, and the possibility of confiscating church lands was also envisaged.

After the death of Metropolitan Macarius, the harmony of interaction between the ecclesiastical and secular authorities was violated. The tsar established a regime of terror in the country, which extended to the saints as well. Now he raised and overthrew the metropolitans, guided only by his own will. In 1568, Ivan IV publicly desecrated Metropolitan Philip II, tearing off his holy mantle while serving in the Assumption Cathedral. Metropolitan Philip II became the last high priest who was not afraid to openly oppose the unrighteous rule of the tyrant. Cyril, who replaced him, and the later metropolitans could no longer offer the authorities any resistance.

INTRODUCTION OF THE PATRIARCHY IN RUSSIA (16th century)

During the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich in 1586, Patriarch Joachim of Antioch came to Moscow for alms. This was the first ecumenical patriarch to visit Russia. The Moscow government took advantage of his visit to raise the issue of establishing a patriarchate in Russia. Joachim promised to intercede for the Russian Church before other patriarchs upon his return to the East. Two years later, Moscow solemnly met the Patriarch of Constantinople Jeremiah. However, contrary to the expectations of the sovereign, it turned out that he was not vested with the authority to appoint the Russian patriarch. Negotiations on the establishment of the patriarchate were resumed. Unexpectedly for the Russians, Jeremiah expressed a desire to stay in Russia and become the first Russian patriarch. Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich agreed, but on the condition that the department was not in Moscow, but in Vladimir. Jeremiah, as Moscow sought, did not accept such a humiliating condition, according to which he would be away from the court, having no chance of influencing state policy. In 1589, a council of Russian bishops elected Metropolitan Job to the established patriarchal throne. He was elevated to the rank of Patriarch Jeremiah of Constantinople. In 1590 and 1593, at the Councils of Constantinople, the chief priests confirmed the legitimacy of the act and assigned the Patriarch of Moscow the fifth place among the ecumenical primates.

In 1591, with the death of Tsarevich Dmitry, the Rurik dynasty was suppressed (Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich had no children). Boris Godunov was elected to the royal throne. Patriarch Job in every possible way contributed to his enthronement, and later, after the death of the latter, opposed the impostor False Dmitry I, who imposed Catholicism and Western customs. The new self-appointed ruler managed to force the council of bishops to remove Job from the throne and send him into exile. The former archbishop of Ryazan, Ignatius, who was loyal to the Westernizing innovations of False Dmitry, became the patriarch. After the overthrow of the impostor, his protege Ignatius was also removed from the patriarchal throne. Metropolitan Hermogenes of Kazan was elected the new patriarch. In 1611-1612 it was he, in the conditions of the Polish-Swedish intervention and actual anarchy, who led the national liberation movement, appealing to the people with an appeal to defend the Orthodox faith from the Gentiles. The Poles imprisoned Hermogenes in the Chudov Monastery, where he was martyred from hunger. Thanks to his appeals, the liberation movement took on a nationwide character and led to the expulsion of the Poles from Moscow.

In 1613 the Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne. For the father of the young tsar, Metropolitan Filaret of Rostov, who was in Polish captivity, the title of "named patriarch" was approved. Filaret returned from captivity in 1619 and was made patriarch by the Patriarch of Jerusalem Theophanes IV, who was at that time in Moscow.

One of the first deeds of the new patriarch was the restoration of the Printing House, where work began to correct the liturgical books, since during the years of turmoil a large number of books of the South Russian press entered liturgical use, requiring them to be brought into line with the Greek canon.

An important event in the church life of that time was the council convened at the initiative of Filaret and dedicated to the question of the re-baptism of Catholics, whom many priests accepted into Orthodoxy through chrismation. The Council decisively decreed the need to re-baptize Catholics. There were even approved special "ranks of annexation", drawn up by the patriarch Hermogenes.

The further policy of Patriarch Filaret, based on his personal experience of staying in Poland, was aimed at the utmost protection of the Russian Church from Latin influences. Official doctrine declared Russia to be the only guardian of ancient piety, whose religious experience was not influenced by Western influences. In accordance with this point of view, with the blessing of Filaret, public readings of new theological works created in Ukraine or Poland were organized in Moscow, during which they were subject to detailed analysis and criticism of the Moscow “editors”. Several of these writings were condemned for Latin influences and burned.

In addition to establishing strict control over the publishing and liturgical activities, Filaret, as the de facto co-ruler of Mikhail Romanov, took an active part in solving the most important state issues. Under him, the authority and power of the patriarch were raised to an unprecedented height.

His successors, Joasaph (1634-1640) and Joseph (1640-1652), did not have such power. During the period of their hierarchy in religious life, the issues of ordering parish and monastic life came to the fore, the imperfection of which began to cause acute concern for both the laity and representatives of the clergy. A significant number of the teachings and epistles written by Joseph denounce sorcery, buffoonery, drunkenness among the white and black clergy, all kinds of violations of the liturgical rules by the priests. In addition to pointing out the dark sides of Russian religious life, the works of the patriarch indicate that during this period the laity became much more actively interested in issues of faith and church life.

At the end of the 1640s, a circle of devotees of piety was formed around the confessor of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Stefan Vonifatiev. He set himself the goal of ordering church life by restoring ancient traditions. The increased activity of religious life in all strata of the population could not but contribute to the emergence of new heretical movements. Among them, the heresy of the monk Kapiton stood out, who saw the only means of achieving salvation in severe asceticism, and also denied the sacraments and hierarchy.

In the 1630s-1640s, the world community established the idea of ​​Russia as the defender of the peoples conquered by the Turks. This circumstance contributed to the development of the process of rapprochement with the Orthodox peoples of the East and, as a result, the weakening of the policy of isolationism. The experience of the religious life of other peoples began to penetrate intensively into Russian church life. In 1649 the king issued Cathedral Code, which had the meaning of the legislative code, which consolidated the dominant position of the Orthodox Church in the Russian state system. By this act, the power took under the protection and patronage of both the church and the Orthodox faith itself, while it established civil status for persons of clergy and limited the power of the church by the creation of the Monastic Order, to which the trial of the clergy, from metropolitans to clergymen, was transferred. Code caused a sharp rejection among the clergy. The answer to the publication of this document was the publication of Feeding the book, where civil law was brought into line with church law according to the ancient Byzantine tradition. Edition Helmsman and Code demonstrated a tendency to divide the law into secular and ecclesiastical.

REFORMS OF PATRIARCH NIKON

In 1652, Metropolitan Nikon of Novgorod came to the patriarchal throne. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich himself indicated his candidacy, contrary to the opinion of many zealots of piety. In the young, energetic and ambitious bishop, the tsar saw a close-minded person with whom, as it seemed to him, he had much in common in his views on the future of Russia and the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1653, the energetic Nikon, with the support of Alexei Mikhailovich, began a church reform, the main content of which at first consisted in organizing the correction of liturgical books according to Greek models. In fact, the reformers used the books of the Belarusian and Ukrainian press, which in turn were guided by the Venetian editions. A church council convened by Nikon supported the course chosen by the tsar and the patriarch.

In addition to the problem of correcting liturgical books, the reform also affected the ritual side of church life, which caused resistance to Nikon's innovations not only among the clergy, but also among the people and ultimately led to a split in the church and the emergence of the Old Believers.

The first successes on the path of transforming the Russian Church and the patronage of the sovereign contributed to the fact that Nikon began to act in other matters just as decisively, and sometimes even despotically, clearly exceeding his authority. The rise of patriarchal power, unprecedented since the time of Filaret, and its active intervention in the affairs of state administration, in the end caused the tsar's discontent. Feeling a "thunderstorm", Nikon decided to leave the pulpit without permission, hoping that the tsar would return him. Nikon's wrong step was immediately taken advantage of in order to draw up an accusation against the patriarch. The Council of 1666 decided to deprive Nikon of the rank and elect a new primate of the Russian Church. The decisive position of Nikon, who through his intermediaries proved the uncanonicity of the conciliar decision, delayed its implementation. Nikon insisted that the priesthood is above the kingdom and only the ecumenical patriarchs can judge the patriarch. In 1666, the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria arrived in Moscow. The council brought Nikon down from the throne and sent him into exile. The successor to the patriarchal power was Joasaph II, who resolutely continued the liturgical transformations of Nikon, realizing that Nikon's condemnation caused the most serious damage to the authority of the church.

Pitirim, who replaced him, and then Joachim, with difficulty restrained the decisive offensive of the secular authorities on the rights of the church. Patriarch Joachim achieved the abolition of the Monastic Order and the return to the hands of the clergy of financial, judicial and administrative power in resolving issues related to the church. The patriarch also contributed a lot to limiting the spread of the Old Believers. He penned a number of anti-schismatic works. With his blessing, schismatic monasteries and hermitages were destroyed; instead of old printed books, the priests were given free service books of the new print. In 1682, the church council made a decision to consider staying in schism as a civil crime. In the same year, under pressure from the archers and their leader, Prince Khovansky, Patriarch Joachim agreed to an open dispute with the leader of the Old Believers Nikita Pustosvyat. The debate was so violent that the regent, Princess Sophia, threatened to leave the capital in discussion. The dispute was ended. Nikita Pustosvyat was soon captured and executed by order of Sophia. During the period of the patriarchate of Joachim, the problem of the increasingly spreading Catholic influence was still acute. Its powerful source was the writings of Simeon of Polotsk, a writer who was under the personal patronage of the tsar. An important event of this time was the return of the Kiev Metropolitanate to the jurisdiction of Moscow. see also SPLIT.

RUSSIAN CHURCH UNDER PETER THE GREAT

In the context of the weakness of state power at the end of the 17th century. Joachim managed to consolidate the forces of the clergy and defend the property rights of the church. Joachim's successor Adrian followed the policy of his predecessor in everything, but he managed to achieve little on this path - he faced the strengthened will of the young Tsar Peter I. The Tsar's intervention in church affairs took on a systematic character, he completely ignored, and sometimes even publicly insulted the Patriarch. The tsar reintroduced strict control over church property by the state. Joachim's successes were wiped out by the end of the century.

After the death of Hadrian in 1700, Peter I took decisive steps towards achieving complete subordination to the church. The election of a new patriarch was constantly postponed. To fulfill the role of locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Peter appointed Metropolitan of Ryazan and Murom Stephen (Yavorsky). Metropolitan Stephen was brought up in Catholic schools in Lvov and Poznan. Peter's choice fell on him as a pro-Western bishop. However, in reality, Stefan Yavorsky turned out to be a champion of the patriarchate and the high authority of the church. He did not always agree with the policy of Peter. Apparently, Metropolitan Stephen was involved in the case of Tsarevich Alexei, although the tsar was unable to find any evidence against him.

In 1718, Metropolitan Stephen filed a petition to let him go to Moscow under the pretext that, being in Moscow, it would be more convenient to govern the Moscow and Ryazan dioceses. In connection with the departure of the saint, Peter instructed Bishop of Pskov Theophan Prokopovich to draw up a project for the establishment of the Theological College, which would replace the sole authority of the patriarch and, thus, would not be dangerous for the autocracy. Formally, the Collegium was endowed with judicial, administrative and legislative powers, but it could exercise the power given to it only with the consent of the sovereign himself. Under pressure from the monarch, the bishops signed a document establishing a new state collegium - the Holy Synod. Its opening took place in 1721. From that moment on, the church completely lost its former independence from the secular authorities. Stefan Yavorsky became the President of the Holy Synod. In 1722, the emperor established the post of chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod, to which an officer was appointed who served in the Synod as "the sovereign's eye." As a result, Stefan Yavorsky was practically removed from the management of the church. After the death of Metropolitan Stephen, the office of president was abolished.

From now on, the state controlled all aspects of church life. In accordance with the educational reform of Peter, the compulsory education of the children of clergy was proclaimed (under pain of expulsion from the class). In different cities of Russia - Nizhny Novgorod, Vologda, Kazan, etc. - seminary-type religious schools were created; in Moscow, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was transformed into the Theological Academy based on the Kiev model. New rules were also introduced regarding monastic life. Military and civil servants were forbidden to enter the monastery. An age qualification was introduced: men could enter the monastery from the age of 30, women - from the age of 50. The founding of sketes was strictly forbidden. The founding of new monasteries was only possible with the permission of the Synod. Many monasteries were closed under the pretext of lack of funds for their maintenance. These state measures quickly led to the desolation of monastic life and the extinction of the tradition of ascetic monastic practice, the life of which was "fueled" by only a very few of its representatives.

AFTER PETER

After the death of Peter during the reign of Catherine I, the Holy Synod was subordinated to a new state body - the Privy Council, which in fact meant the subordination of the church not to the anointed sovereign, but to a state government devoid of any sacredness.

During the short reign of Peter II, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, there was a movement towards the restoration of the patriarchate, but the sudden death of the fifteen-year-old emperor did not allow these hopes to come true.

Anna Ivanovna, who ascended the Russian throne, proclaimed a "return" to the precepts of Peter. Her policy first of all manifested itself in the wave of the so-called. bishop processes. A significant role in their organization belonged to Theophan Prokopovich, who sent the saints into exile and imprisonment, thus dealing with his "enemies." The monasteries were subjected to new severe tests. Now only widowed priests and retired soldiers could be tonsured into the monastery. The abbots of the monasteries were charged with the duty of reporting to the Synod about the slightest misdeeds of monks who were subjected to severe punishments: they were either exiled to the mines, or sent to the army. By the end of Anna Ivanovna's reign, some monasteries were completely empty, in others only deep elders remained.

The situation changed somewhat with the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna. Being very pious, the empress returned innocently convicted pastors from prison and exile, allowed young monks from any class to be tonsured, made generous donations to many monasteries and restored the monastic system of management of the lands belonging to the monasteries. However, to the proposal to restore the patriarchate, Elizabeth, who sacredly revered her father's reformist activities, responded with a decisive refusal. During the reign of Elizabeth, the first occurred in the 18th century. canonization: Dmitry Rostovsky was canonized.

In the Petrine and post-Petrine epochs, an intensive expansion of the borders of the empire continued. In this regard, the missionary activity of the Russian Church received serious support from the state. Newly baptized foreigners were provided with serious benefits to the extent that tax and recruiting duties were shifted to unbaptized fellow tribesmen. Missionary activities were carried out by a specially established Office of New Epiphany Affairs.

THE CHURCH IN THE RULE OF CATHERINE II

The ecclesiastical policy of Catherine II, who succeeded Peter III, who reigned for a short time, is clearly characterized by her statement: "Respect the faith, but in no way let it influence state affairs." It was during her reign that the centuries-old dispute over monastic estates was summed up. A manifesto issued by the empress announced the secularization of church real estate. Funds for the maintenance of the monasteries were now given by the Board of Economics. States were introduced for monasteries. Monasteries that were not included in the states were abolished or had to exist on the offerings of the believers. As a result of this reform, the number of monastics was reduced from 12 to 5 thousand, and many ancient monasteries were closed. Closed monasteries turned into barracks and homes for the insane. Despite a new wave of persecution, the surviving monasteries managed to derive considerable benefit from the current situation, seeing in it an opportunity for the revival of the ancient ascetic monastic spirit. Metropolitan Gabriel of Novgorod and St. Petersburg helped to ensure that from now on the monasteries were headed not just by "learned monks", but by people experienced in spiritual life. The institution of eldership was revived, the rooting of which is associated with the name of Paisiy Velichkovsky, who asceticised in the monasteries of Athos and Moldavia.

RUSSIAN CHURCH IN 19-21 centuries.

The son of Catherine Paul, during his short reign, in everything contradicted the beginnings of his mother. He somewhat improved the position of clergymen, freeing them from corporal punishment and increasing the staffing of the clergy. At first, Alexander I Pavlovich was very little interested in the affairs of the church. The question of the state of church affairs was posed to the sovereign by M.M. Speransky. Speransky began to intensively deal with the problem of spiritual education. Together with Archbishop Theophylact, he developed new statutes for academies, seminaries and schools, according to which the emphasis was not on the mechanical memorization of educational material, but on its creative assimilation. In 1809, classes in the new programs began at the St. Petersburg Theological Academy, and in 1814 at the Moscow one. Both academies soon became real centers of theology.

At the beginning of the 19th century. in Russian society, what was happening during the 18th century became really tangible. the division of national culture into folk culture, which remained faithful to the ancient religious and moral customs, and the culture of the nobility, fed by Western sources. After the war of 1812, mystical sentiments intensified in high society, which was the reason for the emergence of religious sects.

A significant event in church life in the 19th century. The Georgian Exarchate was founded in 1811. The Catholicos of Georgia was henceforth a permanent member of the Holy Synod. The incorporation of the Georgian Church into the Russian Orthodox Church created favorable conditions for missionary activities to restore the Orthodox faith in the Caucasus. The Ossetian Mission was opened in 1814. Metropolitan Theophylact translated the liturgical texts into the Ossetian language and Catechism.

With the coming to power of Nicholas I (1825), the state policy in relation to the church acquired a rigid "protective" character. The king tried to protect the official church from the influence of a large number of Masonic lodges and various kinds of sects. Spiritual censorship intensified, some especially zealous representatives of which put the creations of Macarius the Great and Isaac the Syrian on a par with the writings of sectarians. The Chief Prosecutor of the Synod N.A. Protasov (1798-1855, Chief Prosecutor 1836-1855) tried to carry out a new educational reform designed to lower the cultural level of theological schools under the pretext of adapting curricula to the conditions of rural life. Metropolitan Philaret of Moscow resolutely opposed the reform. He managed to prevent the implementation of a plan for the extreme simplification of secondary spiritual education. In 1842 Protasov achieved the removal of Metropolitan Filaret from the Synod, however, even after his removal from the Synod, he remained the spiritual leader of the Russian bishops. A new phenomenon was the creation in 1841 on the initiative of the chief prosecutor of spiritual consistories - advisory and executive bodies under the diocesan bishops. The state of the consistories consisted of bishops and secular officials, headed by a secretary, who was appointed by the chief prosecutor himself. Any decision of the diocesan bishop could be challenged by the secretary. Thus, the diocesan administration, which received its own chief prosecutor in the person of the secretary, was also taken under the strict control of the state. In the 1820s – 1830s, the number of Uniates who converted to the Orthodox faith increased in western Russia. In 1839, a council of the Uniate clergy was held in Polotsk, which drew up an act of joining the Russian Orthodox Church. During the same period, a movement to join Orthodoxy was found among Estonians and Latvians, who perceived Lutheranism as the religion of the German barons. Russian bishops (Filaret Gumilevsky, Platon Gorodetsky) managed to consolidate the position of Orthodoxy in the Baltic States. In 1836, the opening of the Riga Vicariate of the Pskov Diocese took place in Riga. In 1847 the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission was opened in Jerusalem.

The system of church administration that took shape under Nicholas I and the chief prosecutor N.A. Protasov, during the change of the sovereign, caused sharp criticism in different strata of society. A. Muravyov, who served under the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, criticized formalism and bureaucracy in church administration. He submitted a memorandum to the new Chief Prosecutor A.P. Tolstoy On the state of the Orthodox Church in Russia... The period of the chief prosecutor of A.P. Tolstoy (1856–1862) was marked by a softening of tight control over the church. A.P. Tolstoy himself was a man of sincere faith, who treated the church with respect; quite often he made pilgrimage trips to Optina Pustyn. In the second half of the 1860s, D.A. Tolstoy (1865–1880) took the post of chief prosecutor, who tried to revive the times of Protasov. He contributed to the removal of the clergy from the organization of the primary education of peasant children.

In the late 1860s, great changes took place in the position of the parish clergy. Abolished hereditary rights to church offices. The sons of clergymen received rights similar to the rights of children of personal nobles or hereditary honorary citizens. They were given the opportunity to enter the military or civilian service and join the merchant guilds. Thus, the estate of the clergy was legally eliminated. Missionary work remained an important activity of the church at that time. In 1865 the Orthodox Missionary Society was formed in St. Petersburg. It trained missionaries, provided material assistance to existing missions. Particular attention was still paid to the Christianization of the peoples of the Volga region. In Kazan, Professor N.I. Ilminsky (1822-1891) opened the first school for baptized Tatar children with teaching in the Tatar language. In 1869, a divine service in the Tatar language was held for the first time in Kazan.

In the church press of the 1860s, the issue of reforming secondary and higher spiritual education was widely discussed. By 1867-1869, a special committee developed the statutes of seminaries, theological schools and academies. Now the administration of theological schools belonged to the Study Committee under the Synod instead of the previous administration, subordinate to the chief prosecutor. Internal administration was built on the basis of collegiality and self-government. The curricula have undergone significant changes. The circle of sciences has been reduced. Physics and mathematics disciplines were excluded from the curriculum of the Academies. Only the best students were left to work on master's and master's theses. Master's theses were subject to public defense. After the reform in the 1870s, the number of theological educational institutions began to grow rapidly. Through the efforts of Metropolitan Filaret in the 1860s, work on the translation of the Bible was resumed, and in 1876 the first edition of the Bible in Russian was published. see also THE BIBLE.

The era of Alexander III went down in history as an era of reaction to the liberal reforms of the 1860s. Church policy was now carried out by K.P. Pobedonostsev (1827-1907, chief prosecutor 1880-1905). The new head of the Synod stated that the government was striving for the practical application of the ancient canonical ecclesiastical right to conciliarly discuss the most important issues, but in reality strict state control over the church was preserved. The Russian episcopate received only the right to convene district councils of bishops. At the end of the 19th century. the class isolation of the spiritual rank has finally receded into the past. The rise of the clergy on the estate ladder brought him closer to the noble intelligentsia, to representatives of academic science. Numbered among the saints, John of Krondstadt, a shepherd who belonged to the white clergy, became famous not only for his sermons, but also for his profound theological writings. However, this phenomenon also had its downside: an unreasonably large number of graduates of seminaries and academies began to go to universities, to secular science. Pobedonostsev did not fail to strengthen church-protective measures in the system of spiritual education: they abolished the elective beginning of administration, abolished specialization in departments. On the other hand, Pobedonostsev strove to expand the influence of the clergy on public education and contributed to a significant increase in the number of parish schools.

With the accession to the throne of Nicholas II, the number of canonizations multiplied. During the short reign of the last emperor, Theodosius of Chernigov, Joasaph of Belgorod, Hermogen of Moscow, Pitirim of Moscow were canonized, and the veneration of Anna Kashinskaya was restored. The glorification of Seraphim of Sarov was a great celebration. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Russian Church continued to carry out wide missionary activity. The Japanese Spiritual Mission, headed by the later canonized Metropolitan Nikolai (Kasatkin), and the Korean Spiritual Mission, whose work proceeded in the difficult conditions of the Russo-Japanese War, gained particular fame at this time. In 1898-1912, the Russian episcopate was headed by Metropolitan Anthony (Vadkovsky) of St. Petersburg and Ladoga (1846-1912). In 1905 he led a church movement aimed at reviving the conciliar principle in church administration. For his part, Pobedonostsev opposed this movement in every possible way, declaring that the chief prosecutor's supervision is a reliable guarantee of collegiality and conciliarity. Under pressure from Pobedonostsev, the tsar postponed the convening of the council, referring to the alarming time, but gave permission for the opening of the Pre-Council meeting. The meeting was called in 1912, but its work was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War. The tragic moment of the collapse of the Russian Empire was approaching.

On March 2, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne. The government of the country passed to the Provisional Government. A new Chief Prosecutor VN Lvov was appointed to the Synod. First of all, he dismissed from the Synod all the bishops who were suspected of sympathizing with the previous regime. In the new structure, the Synod, chaired by Metropolitan Platon, tried to improve relations between the church and the Provisional Government. The result was the convocation of the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, which began its work in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin on August 15, 1917. Cm... LOCAL CATHEDRAL 1917-1918.

The main decision of the cathedral was the restoration of the patriarchate. Metropolitan Tikhon (Belavin) was elected His Holiness Patriarch. The council took place in the days when the Provisional Government could no longer rule the country. The desertion of soldiers from the front became widespread. The country was in chaos. After the October Revolution, the council issued an appeal in which it described the events that had taken place as "raging atheism." The second session of the cathedral opened on January 21, 1918, and on August 7, its activities were terminated due to the confiscation of the premises where its work took place. Having come to power, the Bolshevik government immediately began preparing a law on the separation of church and state. The adoption of this law was regarded by the church as the beginning of persecution of clergy. Indeed, at this time, the persecution of priests, monks and nuns had already begun in the country. Patriarch Tikhon tried to stop this process by addressing the Council of People's Commissars with a message. However, the patriarch's appeals remained unanswered. In the Civil War, the new government won one victory after another. First, the Red Army defeated the troops of A.V. Kolchak, then the army of A.I.Denikin. With the retreat of the White Army, many priests and bishops left Russia. Patriarch Tikhon was faced with the task of protecting the remaining pastors, and he called on the clergy to abandon all political speeches.

The picture of church life in Ukraine was difficult in the first post-revolutionary years. The idea of ​​separating the Ukrainian Church from the Russian Church and the introduction of a union arose again. The government of S.V. Petlyura proclaimed the autocephaly of the Ukrainian Church and arrested Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky) of Kiev and Archbishop Eulogius of Volyn. However, soon after the arrival of the Red Army in Kiev, the Ukrainian Church was left without a bishop. Trying to end the church turmoil in Ukraine, Patriarch Tikhon temporarily abolished the autocephaly of the Ukrainian Church in 1921, giving it the status of an exarchate. Despite this, the Ukrainian separatists in October of the same year proclaimed the autocephaly of the church, and the Kiev priests ordained the married Archpriest Vasily Lipkovsky to the rank of metropolitan. Later, within a week, a whole false hierarchy emerged, which was called "Lipkovshchina".

The civil war and the defeat of the White Army led to the fact that a large number of Russian people were forced to emigrate. By 1920, there were more than two million Russians in European countries alone. Among them were clergymen. On November 21, 1921, in Sremski Karlovtsy, with the consent of the Serbian Patriarch, a meeting of the general church overseas assembly took place, which was later renamed the Russian All-Foreign Church Council. It included the bishops and members of the Local Council of 1917-1918 who were in Karlovtsy. Charles Cathedral formed the Higher Church Administration Abroad, headed by Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky), which led the church life of the Russian diaspora.

The Bolshevik campaign of 1920 for the autopsy and destruction of the relics of the saints came as a strong shock for the believers of the Russian Church. In the summer of 1921, a drought began in the Volga region, resulting in a terrible famine. In February 1922, a decree was issued on the seizure of church property in order to find means to fight hunger. In a number of cases, during the confiscation, bloody clashes between believers and the police took place. Arrests began, and then the trial of a group of clerics, who were sentenced to death. Patriarch Tikhon was placed under house arrest in connection with these events. In the midst of the outbreak of terror, several Petrograd priests headed by A.I. Vvedensky, having entered into an agreement with the GPU, seized church administration. In April 1923 they announced that Tikhon had been deprived of his dignity. While the patriarch was in prison, a show trial was being prepared against him. However, it did not take place due to protests from the international community and fears of possible popular unrest. Patriarch Tikhon was released, having previously demanded to publicly plead guilty to the Soviet regime. The saint considered it necessary to compromise with the authorities and fulfilled the condition he had set. Having been released, the patriarch began to put in order the church administration, which was upset by the confusion of the "renovationists". Pretty soon he managed to restore the hierarchical apparatus and give the church organization, in the words of the Bolsheviks themselves, "the appearance of an ideological and organic whole." In 1925, Patriarch Tikhon died. Cm... TIKHON, ST.

Metropolitan Peter (Polyansky) became the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, at the will of the deceased patriarch. The convocation of a council and new elections of the patriarch was out of the question, since the Church was actually in a semi-legal position, and the Soviet government recognized the Renovationist group as the Orthodox Church. In 1925, the Renovationists held another council, at which they accused Patriarch Tikhon and Metropolitan Peter of having links with emigrant monarchists. Their political accusation was immediately taken up by the Soviet press. Metropolitan Peter, foreseeing the further course of events, drew up a will and appointed successors in case of his death. Metropolitan Peter was soon arrested. Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky) took over the duties of the patriarchal locum tenens. Cm... SERGY.

Meanwhile, another schismatic grouping arose in the Russian Church: ten bishops spoke out against Metropolitan Peter as the head of the church and formed the Supreme Church Council. This body was legalized by the authorities.

In the 1920s – 1930s, the former Solovetsky Monastery became the main place of imprisonment for clergy. In 1926 there were 24 bishops. They compiled and addressed to the government the so-called. Aide Memoire... In it, they recognized the legitimacy of the separation of church from state and expressed their loyalty to the government. At the same time, the document emphasized the incompatibility of the Christian worldview with atheism, which is an integral part of the communist doctrine, and expressed the hope that the church would be allowed to elect a patriarch and organize diocesan administration. Metropolitan Sergius also asked the government to legalize the church. The authorities responded with another arrest of Sergius. In April 1927, Metropolitan Sergius was released. Returning to Moscow, he convened a conference of bishops who elected the Provisional Patriarchal Holy Synod. This body was officially registered for the first time.

The Synod issued a decree on the resumption of the commemoration of the state authorities during the divine service, which was introduced by Patriarch Tikhon. The decree confused many bishops. Some of them even announced their separation from the "graceless Sergius church." Now it is obvious that the policy of Sergius was dictated by the desire to preserve the church and its ministers, without putting the people before a tough choice between "Renovationism" and a catacomb existence. In 1929, after a short lull, the persecution of the church began again. L.M. Kaganovich declared religious organizations a legally operating counter-revolutionary force. A number of new decrees were issued prohibiting religious associations from charitable activities and private religious education. The mass closure of churches and monasteries began. Many of them were simply destroyed, others turned into warehouses, prisons and colonies. In 1934, the arrests and exile of clergymen were resumed. In 1935, the deputy locum tenens, Metropolitan Sergius, was forced to dissolve the Synod. Only a secretary and a typist remained in the Metropolitan's office.

In 1936, the false news came about the death of the locum tenens, Metropolitan Peter (shot in 1937). Metropolitan Sergius officially assumed the office of patriarchal locum tenens.

The Great Patriotic War forced the government to change its attitude towards the church. In 1943, Metropolitans Sergius, Alexy and Nikolai met with Stalin, who agreed to hold a church council and elect a patriarch. The council, which took place in September 1943, was elected patriarch of Sergius. As a high priest, he began active efforts to restore the greatly thinned church hierarchy. Under the new conditions, the employees of the NKVD, using their inherent methods, contributed to the abolition of the Renovationist Church, which was once under their patronage.

In 1944, Patriarch Sergius died. Alexy I ( cm... ALEXIUS I). In the postwar years, the Russian Orthodox Church restored communion with the ecumenical churches and gained international prestige. The replacement of the episcopal sees remained an urgent task. By 1949, the Russian episcopate already numbered 73 bishops. However, significant changes in the life of the church took place only after the death of Stalin. Many priests have been granted amnesty; in 1956 the relics of St. Nikita of Novgorod were transferred to the church; for the first time since the restoration of the patriarchate, the Bible was reprinted.

Again the threat of persecution hung over the church in 1958. By order of NS Khrushchev, the church was demanded to reform the parish administration. According to the requirements, the abbot, together with the clergy, became legally hired personnel, with whom the parish council concluded an agreement. This achieved the goal of eliminating the priest from participating in the economic affairs of the parish. The number of parishes has almost halved. Many churches were closed under the pretext of restoration, others were simply destroyed. In 1963 the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was closed.

After the change of government and the coming to power of Leonid Brezhnev (1964), the position of the church remained almost unchanged. The project submitted to the government on the introduction of parish rectors into the parish council did not meet with success. By the early 1970s, a situation had developed when more than half of the country's population was brought up outside the influence of church and religion. The situation began to change towards the end of the decade, when the number of new converts who consciously came to church life multiplied. A wide circle of parishioners formed around the parish priests, which consisted mainly of the intelligentsia. One of the most popular churches in Moscow is the Church of St. Nicholas in Kuznets, where Father Vsevolod Shpiller (died 1984) served as the rector. Particular care for the neophytes was shown by Archpriest Alexander Men (killed in 1990), priest Dmitry Dudko and others. Despite the small number of functioning monasteries, the tradition of eldership did not fade away in them. The flow of pilgrims to Scheigumen Savva and Archimandrite John Krestyankin from the Pskov-Caves Monastery, and to Archimandrite Kirill from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra did not stop.

The 1980s were marked by preparations for the celebration of the 1000th anniversary of the baptism of Rus. In connection with the upcoming holiday, Patriarch Pimen appealed to the government with a request to transfer the St. Danilov monastery to the church. This event took place in 1983. On the eve of the anniversary celebration, three conferences were held - a church history conference in Kiev, a theological conference in Moscow, and a conference on liturgy and church art in Leningrad. They clearly demonstrated that the church has preserved ancient traditions. At the jubilee Local Council in 1988, for the first time in many years, a number of Russian saints were canonized. During the celebration of the anniversary, there was a radical shift in society in relation to the church. Churches began to return churches and monasteries, and the canonization of Patriarch Tikhon was the first step towards glorifying the clergy who suffered during the Soviet era. Since 1991, services have been regularly held in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The diocesan administration was fully restored. By 1994, the number of dioceses had reached 114. A notable event was the adoption of a new law of the Russian Federation on freedom of conscience and on religious associations, the text of which was drawn up taking into account the wishes of the clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church (1997).

Under Patriarch Alexy II, more than 20 thousand churches and monasteries were opened (sometimes rebuilt) and consecrated, monastic life was resumed in the mass of monasteries, many new saints entered the calendar, including the new martyrs and confessors of the 20th century, who became victims of revolutionary terror and persecution. One after another followed such significant events as: the uncovering of the relics of St. Seraphim of Sarov, the solemn transfer of them to Diveyevo, the acquisition of the relics of St. Joasaph of Belgorod and their return to Belgorod, the acquisition of the relics of His Holiness Patriarch Tikhon and the solemn transfer of them to the Great Cathedral of the Donskoy Monastery, the uncovering in Trinity -Sergius Lavra of the relics of St. Philaret of Moscow and St. Maximus the Greek, the uncovering of the incorruptible relics of St. Alexander of Svir. With the blessing of His Holiness, more than 100 theological educational institutions were opened: seminaries, colleges and parish schools. The patriarch supported the idea of ​​reviving charity towards the poor and mercy, in particular, ministry in hospitals, nursing homes and prisons. Alexy II saw the role of the Orthodox Church in the establishment and maintenance of peace and harmony.

In May 2007, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy II and First Hierarch of the Russian Church Abroad, Metropolitan Laurus, signed Canonical Communion Act, establishing the norms of relations between the two Orthodox Churches and aimed at restoring the unity of the Russian Orthodox Church. Thus, the almost century-old division of the Russian Orthodox Church was brought to an end. In conditions of social stratification, the church under Alexy II tried to spread its influence and unite various strata of the population, contributing to the formation of a common system of values. The merits of Alexy II include the return of the Church to broad public service, the revival and spread of the Orthodox religion and culture.

APPLICATION. DECLARATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND DIGNITY OF THE X WORLD RUSSIAN PEOPLE'S ASSEMBLY

Realizing that the world is going through a turning point in history, is facing the threat of a conflict of civilizations that have different understanding of man and his purpose, the World Russian People's Council, on behalf of the original Russian civilization, adopts this declaration.

Man as the image of God has a special value that cannot be taken away. It must be respected by each of us, society and the state. By doing good, a person acquires dignity. Thus, we distinguish between the value and dignity of the individual. Value is what is given, dignity is what is acquired.

The eternal moral law has a solid foundation in the human soul, independent of culture, nationality, life circumstances. This foundation was laid by the Creator in human nature and manifests itself in conscience. However, the voice of conscience can be drowned out by sin. That is why the distinction between good and evil is intended to be promoted by a religious tradition that has God as its Primary Source.

We distinguish between two freedoms: inner freedom from evil and freedom of moral choice. Freedom from evil is valuable in itself. Freedom of choice acquires value, and personality acquires dignity, when a person chooses good. On the contrary, freedom of choice leads to self-destruction and damages a person's dignity when he chooses evil.

Human rights are based on the value of an individual and should be aimed at realizing his dignity. That is why the content of human rights cannot but be linked to morality. The separation of these rights from morality means their profanation, for there is no immoral dignity.

We are for the right to life and against the “right” to death, for the right to create and against the “right” to destruction. We recognize human rights and freedoms to the extent that they help the individual's ascent to good, protect it from internal and external evil, and allow it to be positively realized in society. In this light, we respect not only civil, political rights and freedoms, but also social, economic and cultural rights.

Rights and freedoms are inextricably linked with the duties and responsibilities of a person. A person, realizing his interests, is called upon to correlate them with the interests of his neighbor, family, local community, people, and all mankind.

There are values ​​that are not inferior to human rights. These are such values ​​as faith, morality, shrines, Fatherland. When these values ​​and the realization of human rights come into conflict, society, the state and the law must harmoniously combine both. Situations should not be allowed in which the exercise of human rights would suppress faith and moral tradition, would lead to an insult to religious and national feelings, revered shrines, would threaten the existence of the Fatherland. The “invention” of such “rights” that legitimize behavior condemned by traditional morality and all historical religions is also considered dangerous.

We reject the policy of double standards in the field of human rights, as well as attempts to use these rights to advance political, ideological, military and economic interests, to impose a certain state and social system.

We are ready to cooperate with the state and with all well-meaning forces in ensuring human rights. Special areas of such cooperation should be the preservation of the rights of nations and ethnic groups to their religion, language and culture, upholding the freedom of religion and the right of believers to their way of life, confronting crimes on national and religious grounds, protecting the individual from the arbitrariness of the authorities and employers, taking care of the rights military personnel, protecting the rights of the child, caring for people in prison and social institutions, protecting victims of destructive sects, preventing total control over a person's private life and beliefs, counteracting the involvement of people in crime, corruption, slave trade, prostitution, drug addiction, gambling addiction.

We strive for a dialogue with people of different faiths and views on human rights issues and their place in the hierarchy of values. Today, such a dialogue, like nothing else, will help to avoid a conflict of civilizations, to achieve a peaceful combination of different worldviews, cultures, legal and political systems on the planet. Their future depends on how people manage to solve this problem.

Literature:

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Volkov M.Ya. Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century... - In the book: Russian Orthodoxy: milestones in history. M., 1989
Shchapov Ya.N. State and Church of Ancient Rus 10-13 centuries... M., 1989
Meyendorf I., archpriest. Byzantium and Moscow Russia:Essay on the history of ecclesiastical and cultural ties in the 14th century... SPb, 1990
Chichurov I.S. " The walk of the Apostle Andrew» in the Byzantine and Old Russian church-ideological tradition... - In the book: Church, Society and State in Feudal Russia. M., 1990
A. V. Kartashev Essays on the history of the Russian Church, vols. 1-2. M., 1991
Orthodox Church in the history of Russia... M., 1991
Tolstoy M.V. History of the Russian Church... M., 1991
Macarius (Bulgakov), Metropolitan. History of the Russian Church, vols. 1-7. M., 1994
Tsypin V., archpriest. History of the Russian Orthodox Church, 1917-1990... M., 1994
Firsov S.L. The Orthodox Church and the State in the Last Decade of the Existence of the Autocracy in Russia... M., 1996
S.V. Rimsky Orthodox Church and State in the 19th century... Rostov-on-Don, 1998
N.V. Sinitsyna Third Rome. The origins and evolution of the Russian medieval concept... M., 1998
Uspensky B.A. Tsar and Patriarch: the charisma of power in Russia... M., 1998

Orthodoxy is one of the directions of Christianity, which became isolated and organizationally formed in the 11th century as a result of the division of churches. In 1054 there was a split of the single Christian Church into Catholicism and Eastern Church... The Eastern Church, in turn, was split into many churches, where the largest today is Orthodox Church.

Orthodoxy arose on the territory of the Byzantine Empire. Initially, it did not have a church center, since the church power of Byzantium was concentrated in the hands of four patriarchs: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. As the Byzantine Empire collapsed, each of the ruling patriarchs headed an independent (autocephalous) Orthodox Church. Subsequently, autocephalous and autonomous churches arose in other countries, mainly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe.

The Russian Orthodox Church has more than a thousand-year history. According to legend, the holy apostle Andrew the First-Called with the preaching of the Gospel, he stopped on the Kiev mountains and blessed the future city of Kiev. The spread of Christianity in Russia was facilitated by its proximity to the mighty Christian state - the Byzantine Empire. South of Russia was consecrated by the activities of the holy brothers equal to the apostles Cyril and Methodius, apostles and enlighteners of the Slavs. In IX, Cyril created the Slavic alphabet (Cyrillic) and, together with his brother, translated into the Slavic language the books without which the divine service could not be performed: the Gospel, the Psalter and selected services. Based on the translations of Cyril and Methodius, the first written and literary language of the Slavs was formed - the so-called Old Church Slavonic.

Baptized in 954 Princess Olga of Kiev... All this prepared the greatest events in the history of the Russian people - the baptism of Prince Vladimir. In the late summer of 988, St. Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich gathered all the Kievites on the banks of the Dnieper, in the waters of which they were baptized by Byzantine priests. This event went down in history as the "baptism of Rus", becoming the beginning of a long process of establishing Christianity in the Russian lands. In 988, under St. Prince Vladimir I was founded Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) how Russian Metropolis Patriarchate of Constantinople with its center in Kiev. The Metropolitan who headed the Church was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople from among the Greeks, but in 1051 a Russian was first placed on the throne. Metropolitan Hilarion, the most educated man of his time, a wonderful church writer.

Majestic temples have been built since the 10th century. Monasteries began to develop in Russia from the 11th century. In 1051 the monk Anthony Pechersky brought traditions to Russia Athos monasticism, having founded the famous Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, which became the center of the religious life of Ancient Russia. The role of monasteries in Russia was enormous. And their main service to the Russian people - not to mention their purely spiritual role - is that they were the largest centers of education. In the monasteries, in particular, chronicles were kept, which brought information to this day about all the significant events in the history of the Russian people. Iconography and the art of book writing flourished in the monasteries, translations of theological, historical and literary works into Russian were carried out. The extensive charitable activities of the monastic monasteries contributed to the education of the people in the spirit of mercy and compassion.

In the 12th century, during the period of feudal fragmentation, the Russian Church remained the only bearer of the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian people, which opposed the centrifugal aspirations and civil strife of the princes. Tatar-Mongol invasion- the greatest calamity that befell Russia in the 13th century - did not break the Russian Church. She survived as a real force and was the comforter of the people in this difficult test. Spiritually, materially and morally, she contributed to the restoration of the political unity of Russia - a guarantee of a future victory over the oppressors. In the difficult years of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and Western influences, monasteries contributed a lot to the preservation of the national identity and culture of the Russian people. The beginning of the 13th century Pochaev Lavra... This monastery did a lot to establish Orthodoxy in the Western Russian lands.

The Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, back in the 13th century, tried to conclude an alliance with Rome, subordinating the Byzantine Church to him in exchange for political and military support against the Turks. In 1274 in Lyon, the emperor's representatives signed a document of an alliance with Rome - the Union of Lyons. The emperor was opposed by his subjects and the Church: Michael was excommunicated from the Church and deprived of a church burial. Only a small number of "Latinophones" - adherents of Western culture, converted to Catholicism.

After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the cathedral of the metropolitanate was moved to Vladimir in 1299, and to Moscow in 1325. The unification of the scattered Russian principalities around Moscow began in the 14th century. And the Russian Church continued to play an important role in the revival of united Russia. Outstanding Russian saints were the spiritual leaders and assistants of the Moscow princes. Prelate Metropolitan Alexy (1354-1378) educated the holy noble prince Dmitry Donskoy... By the power of his authority, he helped the Moscow prince to end feudal unrest and preserve state unity. Great ascetic of the Russian Church, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh blessed Dmitry Donskoy for the greatest feat of arms - Battle of Kulikovo, which served as the beginning of the liberation of Russia from the Mongol yoke. In total, from the 14th to the half of the 15th century, up to 180 new monastic cloisters were founded in Russia. The largest event in the history of Old Russian monasticism was the founding of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by the Monk Sergius of Radonezh (about 1334). Here, in this later glorified monastery, the wondrous talent of the icon painter, the Monk Andrei Rublev, flourished.

The unification of Lithuania with the Catholic Kingdom of Poland, proclaimed in 1385, led to the beginning of legal, economic and political pressure on Orthodoxy in Western Russia. A significant part of the Orthodox bishops could not resist this pressure.

In 1439, in Florence, under pressure from the emperor, on the one hand, and Rome, on the other, the Greek hierarchs again signed a document on their submission to the Roman throne.
The Florentine Union was the straw that the empire tried to grab onto when the Turkish invasion swept over it. Historically, this act brought Byzantium no more benefit than a straw to a drowning man. The empire fell. Very soon Constantinople dissolved the union. But she gave Rome legal arguments in a dispute with Orthodox churches, helped create a network of schools for teaching "Eastern Rite Catholics", train cadres of preachers and missionaries, and create preaching literature intended for distribution in the Orthodox environment. The Florentine union, adopted by Byzantium in 1439, was a heavy blow to the canonical consciousness of the Russians. Church canons prescribed obedience to the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople. The religious conscience did not allow the recognition of the apostate patriarch. The Union provided the Russian Church with solid grounds for gaining independence. The Greek Metropolitan Isidor, an ardent supporter of the union, was arrested and later fled Moscow. The Russians made a decision that was extremely painful for them: in 1448, the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia was appointed not by the Patriarch of Constantinople, as before, but by a council of Russian bishops. It became Archbishop of Ryazan Jonah, elected to the metropolis in 1441, but not then approved by Constantinople. The era of autocephaly began - the complete independence of the Russian Church. In the field of political ideology, this era was marked by the assertion of an original version of the Byzantine theocratic idea (that is, the idea of ​​universal autocracy).

In the second half of the 15th century, Western Russian (Kiev, Lithuanian) metropolitanate... In 1458, the Western Russian Metropolitanate separated from the Moscow Metropolitanate. In addition to the Kiev Metropolitanate, it includes 9 Orthodox dioceses in Lithuania (Polotsk, Smolensk, Chernigov, Turov, Lutsk, Vladimir) and Poland (Galitsk, Przemysl, Kholmsk).

Grand Duke Ivan III(1462-1505) married Sophie (Zoe) Palaeologus, niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, who was killed by the Turks. Ivan III was the first in Russia to accept the title of autocrat (a semblance of the Greek imperial title "autocrator") and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle the Russian coat of arms: Russia directly declared that it was accepting the inheritance of the Orthodox "Empire of the Romans". During the reign of Ivan III, the formula "By God's grace, the tsar and the grand duke" was sometimes added to his title. Under his son Vasily III, the idea of ​​a "third Rome" took on a complete form in the prophecy of Philotheus, the elder of the Spaso-Eleazarov monastery in Pskov: "... two Romes have fallen, and the third is standing, and the fourth will never be." Ivan IV Vasilievich, who went down in history as Ivan the Terrible, in 1547, in the image of the Byzantine emperors, was crowned king. It is noteworthy that this ceremony was performed on the advice of Metropolitan Macarius, who placed the royal crown on the head of young Ivan IV. For the fullness of the Byzantine theocratic ideal - a church-state body with "two heads" (tsar and patriarch), only the title of patriarch was lacking for the primate of the Russian Church. In January 1589 under the king Fedora Ioannovich(to the son of Ivan the Terrible) Patriarch Jeremiah of Constantinople who arrived in Moscow set Metropolitan Job the first patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. Subsequently, the growing power of the Russian state also contributed to the growth of the authority of the Autocephalous Russian Church. The Eastern Patriarchs recognized the fifth place in honor of the Russian Patriarch.

After the fall of Byzantium (1553) and to this day, the ROC claims to be the "third Rome".

In 1596, a significant number of Orthodox hierarchs in the territories of the former Russian principalities, which became part of Lithuania and Poland, accepted the Brest union with Rome.
The highest hierarchs accepted the Catholic confession of faith on the condition that their political and property rights were expanded, and the old Eastern rite was preserved.
The mainstays of Orthodoxy in these lands were the Orthodox brotherhoods, which consisted mainly of laity, and the Cossacks. Brotherhoods, among which the most powerful were Lvov and Vilenskoe, and later - Kiev, created their own schools, printing houses. In Lviv, Russian first printers worked, led by Ivan Fedorov arriving from Moscow. They made a huge contribution to the development of Orthodox education in Belarus and Ukraine.
Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky, who created an Orthodox educational center in Ostrog, and his associate Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who fled to Lithuania under Ivan the Terrible, left a bright trace in the history of the Church. He urged the local Russian nobility to defend Orthodoxy in every possible way.

The 17th century began hard for Russia. From the west, the Polish-Swedish invaders invaded the Russian Land. During this time of Troubles, the Russian Church, as before, honorably fulfilled its patriotic duty to the people. Ardent patriot Patriarch Hermogenes(1606-1612), tortured by the interventionists, was the spiritual leader of the militia Minin and Pozharsky... The heroic defense of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra against the Swedes and Poles in 1608-1610 is forever inscribed in the annals of the history of the Russian state and the Russian Church.

In the period following the expulsion of the invaders from Russia, the Russian Church was engaged in one of its very important internal problems - the correction of liturgical books and rituals. Much credit for this belonged Patriarch Nikon... Since 1667 the Russian Orthodox Church has been greatly weakened Old Believer schism... The split resulted in the separation of the Russian Orthodox Church from Old Believers... The reason for the split was Reform of Patriarch Nikon initiated by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, aimed at correcting the liturgical books according to Greek models and establishing the uniformity of the church service. The reform actually affected only some insignificant elements of ritual: the two-fingered sign of the cross was replaced by a three-fingered sign, instead of "Jesus" they began to write "Jesus", along with the eight-pointed cross, they began to recognize the four-pointed. The reform provoked a protest from part of the clergy, headed by Archpriest Avvakum. The protest found support among the peasants, boyars, archers. Opponents of the reform were anathematized at the council of 1666-1667 and were severely repressed. Fleeing from persecution, supporters of the Old Believers fled to remote places of the North, the Volga region and Siberia. In the years 1675-1695, 37 self-immolations were recorded, during which at least 20 thousand people died. Protopop Avvakum was burnt in a log house together with like-minded people. Many defenders of the old faith took part in the peasant war of S. Razin, the Solovetsky uprising, the uprisings of K. Bulavin and E. Pugachev.

In the 17th century, the Kiev-Mohyla Academy became the main center of Orthodox education not only in the former lands of the southern and southwestern Russian principalities, but throughout Russia. Its name includes the family nickname of the Metropolitan of Kiev Pyotr Mohyla, who created the academy. In the Orthodox editions of Kiev, Lvov, Vilnius, a strong influence of the Catholic theological language is noticeable. The fact is that with the destruction of the Byzantine Empire, the education system in the Orthodox East also fell into decay. But in the Catholic West, it developed unhindered, and many of its achievements were borrowed by the Kiev theological school. Its "working" language was Latin, which relied primarily on Latin sources. The experience of the Kiev school and its theologians played an important role in the revival of Orthodox enlightenment in Moscow Russia in the 17th century, when the wounds of the Time of Troubles were healed. In 1687, Patriarch Dionysius of Constantinople and the Eastern Patriarchs sent a letter confirming the transition Kiev Metropolitanate to the Moscow jurisdiction. The reunification of the Kiev Metropolitanate with the Moscow Patriarchate takes place.

The beginning of the 18th century was marked for Russia by the radical reforms of Peter I. Reforms also affected the Russian Church: after the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I delayed the election of a new Primate of the Church, and in 1721 established a collegial higher church administration represented by Holy Governing Synod, which remained the highest church body for almost two hundred years (1721-1917). The duties of the Primate were temporarily fulfilled by the Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky. Tsar Peter deliberately did not rush to install the patriarch, waiting until his absence became habitual. The Holy Synod did not just replace the patriarchal government. This body was already directly subordinate to the sovereign. The Russian state became an empire, but not of the Byzantine type - with two heads, but of the Western one - with one, secular, head. In the activities of the Synod, whose members were clergy, was attended by a layman - the chief prosecutor, "the eyes and ears" of the secular authorities. In the 18th century, the Church lost almost all of its land holdings, and its property fell under state control. The welfare of hierarchs, especially members of the Synod, depended on the state salary. The priests were obliged to inform their superiors about everything that could pose a threat to the state system. If this information was obtained in confession, when a priest speaks before God as a witness of a person's repentance for committed sins, then the confessor had to divulge the secret of confession - to commit what, according to church canons, is considered a crime. Increased bureaucratic control, coupled with bureaucratic arbitrariness, turned the clergy into a "frightened estate". His authority in society began to decline. In the 18th century, with its fashion for free-thinking, there were even convinced atheists among the chief prosecutors.

In the 19th century, under the successors of Peter I, the Church became the "Office of the Orthodox Confession" (this name of the Church was on the papers of the Holy Synod). The chief prosecutor became the real head of the Office of the Orthodox Confession.
At the same time, a certain mystery accompanies the life of the Russian Church during the Synodal period of its history (1721-1917): having submitted to the new regulations, in its depths the Church did not accept them. This rejection was not expressed in resistance - active or passive (although there was such a thing, and in the 18th century many hierarchs and laity paid for it with their heads). In opposition to the police and bureaucratic pressure in the Church, such phenomena arose in which the fullness of inner spiritual freedom was concentrated.
Thus, the Russian Church of the 18th century was consecrated by the wise meekness of the saint Tikhon Zadonsky(1724-1783). As a bishop, he was distinguished by absolute disinterestedness, modesty, a special talent for educating the clergy, and rejection of the usual corporal punishment at that time. Saint Tikhon became famous as a remarkable church writer, educator and benefactor. The last 16 years of his life he spent in the Zadonsk monastery "at rest", but in fact - in continuous labors, combining a prayer feat with writing, receiving pilgrims and caring for the sick. It was in this era that the revival of a special monastic feat of silent prayer - "clever deed", began. This tradition, which originated in Byzantium and almost disappeared by the 18th century in Russia, survived on Athos. From there she was brought to the lands of Moldavia by a Russian monk Paisy Velichkovsky, later - archimandrite of the Nyametsky monastery in the Carpathians. He is also known for his spiritual and literary works.
The Russian Church paid special attention to the development of spiritual enlightenment and missionary work on the outskirts of the country. Restoration of old and construction of new churches was carried out. Russian church scientists have done a lot for the development of such sciences as history, linguistics, and oriental studies.

The beginning of the 19th century was marked by quiet glory Venerable Seraphim, Sarov wonderworker (1753-1833). His ingenuous conversations with pilgrims are an example of non-book enlightenment that opened the understanding of the Orthodox faith to both ordinary people and scientists.
The 19th century was the heyday of eldership. In the church hierarchy, there is no rank of the elder (teacher and mentor). The elder cannot be appointed, it is impossible for them to pretend; the elder must be recognized by the church people. Only a few received such recognition. The elders of Optina Hermitage, which became a place of real pilgrimage for the common people and the intelligentsia, gained special fame. The elders were predominantly monks, representatives of the black clergy. However, elders are also known from the white, married clergy: for example, the Moscow priest Alexy Mechev (d. 1923).
The synodal period in the history of the Russian Church is also the time of the emergence of a whole network of theological educational institutions, including academies. In the 19th century, their professorship could do credit to any university and included renowned scientists.
In the same period, in a society that was once ideologically almost unified, a variety of ideological currents appeared, many of which were openly anti-church. The development of capitalism in Russia and changes in living conditions destroyed the usual everyday rituals associated with the historical forms of Orthodoxy. The close connection between the state and the Church in Russia has led to the fact that the prevailing social, administrative and even economic structures for the most part seem to merge in the minds of people with Orthodoxy. Therefore, the defense of these structures and relationships was perceived by many as upholding the faith, and their rejection was often associated with the rejection of the Church. Its protection by the state was often carried out in rough and clumsy ways that only harmed Orthodoxy in the eyes of the Gentiles and people who were not sufficiently familiar with it. For example, for a long time, civil servants were required to submit to their superiors a certificate from a priest that they fasted and received Orthodox sacraments at the set time; there were laws that threatened punishment for the conversion of Orthodox Christians to another faith, for example, to the Old Believers. Russian saints of the nineteenth century - saints Ignatiy Bryanchaninov, Theophan the Recluse and others. Serious problems have ripened in the Church, requiring a conciliar solution.
Nevertheless, the authorities stubbornly considered the convening of the Local Council and the restoration of the patriarchate in the Russian Church untimely. It was possible to hold the council only after the February Revolution of 1917 (it opened only in August 1917 and lasted until September 1918). The council took decisions on the most important issues of church life. The patriarchate was restored in the Russian Church and Saint Tikhon (1865-1925) was elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. They allowed the election of bishops by the clergy and laity of the diocese, the use of not only Church Slavonic, but Russian and other languages ​​in worship. The rights of parishes have expanded; outlined measures to strengthen the missionary activity of the Church, expand the participation of the laity in it. However, the reforms began too late.
The atheist state launched a systematic struggle against the Church. The 1918 decree on the separation of church from state deprived the Church of the right to be a legal entity and the right to own property. At the same time, the Church has undergone a number of schisms (the largest of which, the "Karlovy Vary", still exists).

For the Bolsheviks, the Russian Orthodox Church was a priori an ideological enemy. During the Civil War, in the 20-30s. the killings of clergymen were massive. A crushing blow to the Church was dealt in the early 1920s. The church was accused of refusing to give up church values ​​in order to save people in the Volga region suffering from hunger. In reality, the Church did not refuse such help. She protested only against the plundering of temples and against the desecration of shrines. Trials of the clergy began to be held everywhere. During this campaign, a large number of hierarchs were condemned, including Patriarch Tikhon. Saint Benjamin, Metropolitan of Petrograd, and many others were executed.

In the 20s. a blow to the Church was struck from within. Some of the priests hastened to abandon the Patriarchal Church, accepted Soviet power and in 1921-1922. the movement of "renovationism" began. Activists of the Renovationist movement announced the creation of the Living Church, sympathetic to the ideals of the Soviet regime and called upon to renew religious life. Some renovationists really sincerely wanted to believe that the ideals of the gospel could be achieved through social revolution. The leader of the movement, Alexander Vvedensky, tried to lull its vigilance by compliments addressed to the new government in order to fight against godlessness. But the authorities were not inclined to accept "religious propaganda". The time for disputes quickly passed, and the Renovationists eventually began to realize that they were being used as a weapon in their struggle against the Church. Currying favor with the authorities, the Renovationists emphasized their readiness to "serve the people." For the sake of "getting closer to the people" arbitrary changes were made to the order of worship, and the church charter was grossly violated. Even those changes in the life of the Church, which the Local Council of 1917-1918 blessed, took roughly caricatured forms. Of course, over the two millennia of the Church's existence, the rite has changed a lot, but innovations have never been an end in itself. Their task was to more fully reveal the unchanging faith of the Church and transmit her teachings. The innovations were more or less successful. But renovationism in the 1920s and 1930s. became such a test and temptation for the Church that any changes, even those based on tradition, have since become associated with it in the minds of many believers.
The priests who did not accept the "Renovationism" movement and did not have time or did not want to emigrate, went underground and formed the so-called " catacomb church". In 1923, at the local council of the Renovationist communities, programs for a radical renewal of the ROC were considered. At the council, Patriarch Tikhon was deposed and full support for the Soviet regime was proclaimed. Patriarch Tikhon subjected the Renovationists to anathema.

In 1924 the Supreme Church Council was transformed into the Renovationist Synod headed by the Metropolitan.

Some of the clergy and believers who found themselves in exile formed the so-called " Russian Orthodox Church Abroad"(ROCOR). Until 1928, the ROCOR maintained close contacts with the ROC, but later these contacts were terminated.

In the Declaration of 1927, the ROC declared its loyalty to the Soviet government in civil terms, without any concessions in the field of faith. But this did not stop the repression. In the 1930s. the church was on the verge of extinction. By 1940, only a few dozen functioning churches remained on the territory of the USSR, while on the eve of October 1917 there were about 80 thousand Orthodox churches in Russia. Many of them were destroyed, including the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, a monument of gratitude to God for deliverance from the enemy and victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. If in 1917 the Orthodox clergy numbered about 300 thousand people, but by 1940 there were about 300 thousand people. most of the priests were no longer alive.
Outstanding cultural figures, the best theologians of Russia, either died in dungeons and camps, as a philosopher and theologian priest Pavel Florensky, or ended up abroad, like S. L. Frank, N. A. Berdyaev, Sergei Bulgakov and many others.
The authorities of the Soviet Union changed their attitude towards the Church only when the country's existence was threatened. Stalin mobilized all national reserves for defense, including the Russian Orthodox Church as the people's moral force. In a short time, about 10 thousand new parishes were opened. The clergy, including bishops, were released from the camps. The Russian Church did not confine itself only to spiritual support for the defense of the endangered Fatherland - it also provided material assistance, up to uniforms for the army, financing of a tank column named after Dimitry Donskoy and a squadron named after Alexander Nevsky. In 1943, the Russian Church regained a patriarch. Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky)(1867-1944). The rapprochement between the state and the Church in "patriotic unity" was the reception by Stalin on September 4, 1943 of the Patriarchal Locum Tenens Metropolitan Sergius and the Metropolitans Alexia (Simansky) and Nikolay (Yarushevich). From this historical moment, a "warming" began in relations between the Church and the state, but the Church was constantly under state control, and any attempts to expand its activities outside the walls of the temple met with inexorable rebuff, including administrative sanctions.
The activities of Patriarch Sergius are difficult to characterize unambiguously. On the one hand, his loyalty to the Soviet government led to the fact that the government practically did not take into account the Church, on the other hand, it was precisely this policy of the patriarch that allowed not only to preserve the Church, but also made it possible for its subsequent revival.
The position of the Russian Orthodox Church was difficult during the period of the so-called "Khrushchev thaw" (in the early 1960s), when thousands of churches throughout the Soviet Union were closed for the sake of ideological attitudes.

At the Local Council in 1971, a reconciliation with the Old Believers took place.

The celebration of the Millennium of the Baptism of Rus in 1988 marked the decline of the state-atheistic system, gave a new impetus to church-state relations, forced those in power to start a dialogue with the Church and build relationships with it on the principles of recognizing its enormous historical role in the fate of the Fatherland and its contribution to the formation of moral foundations of the nation. The true return of the people to the Father's house began - people were drawn to Christ and His Holy Church. Archpastors, pastors, and laity began zealously to work on the restoration of a full-blooded church life. At the same time, the absolute majority of clergy and believers showed extraordinary wisdom, endurance, steadfastness in faith, devotion to Holy Orthodoxy, despite the difficulties with which the revival was associated, or the attempts of external forces to split the Church, undermine her unity, deprive her of internal freedom, subjugate worldly interests. The desire to enclose the Russian Orthodox Church within the framework of the Russian Federation and the national diasporas associated with it has thus far been in vain.

However, the consequences of the persecution turned out to be very, very serious. It was necessary not only to restore from the ruins thousands of churches and hundreds of monasteries, but also to revive the traditions of educational, enlightening, charitable, missionary, church and public service. Metropolitan Alexy of Leningrad and Novgorod, who was elected by the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church to become a widow after her death, was destined to lead the church revival in these difficult conditions. His Holiness Patriarch Pimen Primate's cathedra. On June 10, 1990, the enthronement of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Russia took place. Under his Archbishop's omophorion, the Russian Orthodox Church took up the hardest work to recreate what was lost during the years of persecution. The Bishops' Councils of the Russian Orthodox Church, at which topical problems of church revival were freely discussed, and decisions were made on canonical, disciplinary and doctrinal issues, became peculiar milestones on this difficult path.

The Bishops' Council of the Russian Orthodox Church on March 31 - April 5, 1992, held in Moscow, adopted a number of important decisions regarding church life in Ukraine and the canonical status of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. At the same Council, the beginning was laid for the glorification of the holy new martyrs and confessors of Russia, who suffered for Christ and His Church during the years of persecution. In addition, the Council adopted an appeal in which it outlined the position of the Russian Orthodox Church on issues that worried society in the countries in which its flock live.

The Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church on June 11, 1992 was convened on an extraordinary basis to consider the case on charges against Metropolitan Filaret of Kiev in anti-church activities that contributed to the schism of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. In a special \ "Judicial act \" the Council decided to expel from the rank of Metropolitan of Kiev Philaret (Denisenko) for the grave moral and canonical crimes committed by him and the perpetration of a schism in the Church.

The Bishops' Council of the Russian Orthodox Church on November 29 - December 2, 1994, in addition to a number of decisions concerning the internal church life, adopted a special definition \ "On the relationship of the Church with the state and secular society in the canonical territory of the Moscow Patriarchate at the present time \", in which it confirmed \ "non-preference \" for the Church of any state system, political doctrine, and so on, the inadmissibility of the Church's full support of political parties, and also prohibited the clergy from nominating themselves in elections to local or federal authorities. The Council also decided to start developing \ "a comprehensive concept that reflects the general church view on issues of church-state relations and the problems of modern society as a whole \". The Council especially noted the need to revive the missionary service of the Church and decided to develop a concept for the revival of the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church on February 18 - 23, 1997 continued work on the general church glorification of the new martyrs and confessors of Russia. In addition, in the council reports and discussions, the themes discussed at the 1994 Council of Bishops developed, which outlined the most important tasks and tendencies in church life. In particular, the Council confirmed the inviolability of the church position on the issue of the inadmissibility of the participation of the Church and its ministers in the political struggle. In addition, they discussed the prospects for the participation of the Russian Orthodox Church in international Christian organizations, problems of missionary and social service to the Church, threats to proselytizing activities of heterodox and heterodox religious associations.

The Jubilee Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church met from 13 to 16 August 2000 in the Hall of Church Councils of the reconstructed Cathedral of Christ the Savior... The meetings of the Council, which ended with the solemn consecration of the Temple, were included in the circle of celebrations dedicated to the great Jubilee - the 2000th anniversary of the Coming into the world of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. The Council became a unique phenomenon in the life of the Russian Orthodox Church in terms of the number and significance of the decisions it made. According to the report of Metropolitan Juvenaly of Krutitsky and Kolomna, chairman of the Synodal Commission for the Canonization of Saints, it was decided to glorify for general church veneration in the face of saints Cathedral of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia XX century, known by name and hitherto unknown to the world, but known to God. The council considered materials about 814 ascetics, whose names are known, and about 46 ascetics, whose names could not be established, but about whom it is reliably known that they suffered for the faith of Christ. The names of 230 previously glorified locally revered saints were also included in the Council of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia for general church veneration. Having considered the issue of canonization of the Royal Family of Nicholas II, the members of the Council decided to glorify Emperor Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra and their children: Alexy, Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia as passion-bearers in the Cathedral of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia. The council adopted a decision on the general church glorification of the ascetics of faith and piety of other times, whose feat of faith was different from that of the new martyrs and confessors. The members of the Council adopted the Basic Principles of the Attitude of the Russian Orthodox Church to Non-Orthodoxy, prepared by the Synodal Theological Commission under the leadership of Metropolitan Filaret of Minsk and Slutsk. This document became a guide for the clergy and laity of the Russian Orthodox Church in their contacts with the heterodox.

Of particular importance is the adoption by the Council of the Fundamentals of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church. This document, prepared by the Synodal Working Group under the leadership of Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad and being the first document of this kind in the Orthodox world, sets out the basic provisions of the Church's teaching on church-state relations and on a number of contemporary socially significant problems. In addition, the Council adopted a new Statute of the Russian Orthodox Church, prepared by the Synodal Commission for amending the Statute on the administration of the Russian Orthodox Church under the leadership of Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad. The Church is guided by this Charter at the present time. The Council adopted an Epistle to God-loving pastors, honest monasticism and all the faithful children of the Russian Orthodox Church, a Definition on the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, a Definition on the status of the Orthodox Church in Estonia and a Definition on issues of the internal life and external activities of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Today, Orthodoxy unites people of different upbringing and education, representatives of different cultures and nationalities, adherents of different ideologies and political doctrines. Disagreements may arise between theologians and individual groups of believers on issues of dogma, the internal life of the Church, and attitudes towards other religions. The world sometimes invades the spiritual life of the Church, imposing its priorities and values ​​on it; it also happens that the behavior of some Orthodox believers becomes a noticeable obstacle on the way of people to Orthodoxy.
History testifies that the Orthodox Church survived in the most difficult historical situations. Legal and economic conditions, ideological doctrines could favor or interfere with her spiritual life and public service. But these conditions were never completely favorable and never had a decisive influence on Orthodoxy. The content of the internal life of the Church was primarily determined by her faith and teaching. Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy II said: "The Church sees its mission not in the social order ... but in the only service, commanded by God, to save human souls. It has fulfilled this mission at all times, under any state formations."

A Brief History of the Russian Orthodox Church

The history of the Russian Orthodox Church begins in 988, when the Kiev prince Vladimir decided to baptize Russia. But even before that, there were Christians in Russia. Archaeological excavations indicate that Christians were in Russia before 988. Almost nothing is known about this part of the history of the Russian Church. In what capacity the Russian Christian communities existed, to whom they were subordinate - there is also no information about this.

In 988, along with the baptism of Rus, the first dioceses were formed - in Kiev, the Kiev metropolis, dominating the entire Russian Church, in 990 - the Rostov diocese, in 992 - the Novgorod diocese. During the period of the split of the state into specific principalities, each of them strove to have its own diocese, so as not to depend on others not only politically, but also spiritually. However, the total number of dioceses was not large - it did not exceed two dozen, and at the beginning of Nikon's reform there were 13 of them (14). Their dependence on the central metropolitanate was often conditional - for example, the Novgorod archbishop, who was one of the most important officials of the boyar republic, was elected virtually independently of Kiev.

The Russian Orthodox Church was dependent on the Patriarch of Constantinople, its heads - the metropolitans - were appointed from the capital of the Empire. Often these were Greeks who were not too interested in the development of the Russian Church.

The division of the church began with the conquest of part of the Russian lands by the Lithuanian principality, and then by the Lithuanian-Polish kingdom. The King of Poland and the Prince of Lithuania were interested in the formation of their own Orthodox metropolis, independent of Russia. Already in 1354, Roman was consecrated by the Metropolitan of Volyn-Litovsk, but this did not take root, and was repeated only once.

With the strengthening of Moscow, when it actually became the center of a unified Russian state, there was a need for a metropolitan who had his throne in Moscow. Jonah, who was elected in 1433, became such a metropolitan. However, his election was not followed by ordination, and two more metropolitans stayed in Kiev. And only after the flight of Isidore, everyone recognized Jonah. He was consecrated by the Metropolitan on December 15, 1448, but was not appointed from Constantinople. Thus, the Russian Church actually acquired independence - autocephaly. Later, avotkephaly was also recognized by Constantinople.

However, the Catholic Rzeczpospolita was interested in the subordination of Orthodoxy to the Pope. In the West, attempts began to transform the Russian Church into a Uniate Church. These attempts were successfully completed on December 25, 1595, with the signing of the Brest Union, according to which the church hierarchs, preserving the Orthodox ritual, assumed the leadership of the pope and the dogmas of the Catholic Church. The union was accepted by Metropolitan Michael of Kiev (Ragoza) and five more dioceses - Lutsk, Khelmsk, Brest-Vladimir, Pinsk, Polotsk, then Przemyshl, Smolensk (1626) and Lvov (1700). In parallel with the adoption of the union by the hierarchs and in fact the destruction of the hierarchy, the Orthodox union was forcibly implanted in individual parishes. However, not everyone accepted the union, and Orthodoxy existed for some time as an illegal community of separate parishes, not united hierarchically.

In 1622, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in order to calm the constant religious uprisings and tensions in Ukraine and Belarus, decided to renew the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Kiev. In 1622, for the first time in 27 years, a metropolitan appeared in Kiev, appointed from Constantinople. Until 1685, the Kiev metropolitans were exarchs of the Constantinople throne. However, the Uniates did not stop their activities, and under the last two metropolitans, the Orthodox Church was in great disarray from the Uniates. Finally, in 1685, the split in the Russian Church was overcome - the Kiev Metropolitanate became the diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church.

In the meantime, important changes have taken place in the ROC itself. In 1589 the Moscow Metropolitanate was transformed into the Patriarchate. The Patriarch has become an extremely important figure in Russian society. In 1652 Nikon became the patriarch. To strengthen the position of Russian Orthodoxy and raise its prestige, he carried out a liturgical reform (correction of service books and icons according to Byzantine models, adjustments in rituals, in particular, the writing of Jesus instead of Jesus, the introduction of the three-finger sign of the cross instead of the two-finger one, replacing the bows of the earth with belt bows, changing the direction of movement divine services (posolosn), the admission of the six-pointed cross along with the eight-pointed, the introduction of a regular church sermon). As a result of the reform, a split of the Church occurred, part of the population and clergy did not want to accept the changes. The Council of 1666-1667 anathematized all opponents of the reform, finally consolidating the split. The emerging movement of the Old Believers instantly disintegrated into many currents, often completely different from each other. Also, the Old Believers were protesting about the way the reforms were carried out - they were adopted not by a council, but solely by the patriarch.

A new turn in the history of the church took place in 1721. Peter I, dissatisfied with the existence of a powerful church figure, very authoritative in society - the patriarch - destroyed this office. At first, after the death of Adrian, in 1700 a new patriarch was not elected, but a locum tenens was appointed, and in 1721 the patriarchate itself was officially abolished and a collegial body was formed to lead the church - the Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor, who did not belong to the church. hierarchy, who was an ordinary tsarist official.

The synodal administration existed until 1917, when the patriarchate was restored at the local council after the October Revolution. Tikhon (Belavin) was elected patriarch. He anathematized Soviet power. The brutal persecution of the Church began, which continued throughout the entire period of the existence of Soviet power.

At the same time, a new schism shook the church. First, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, which was formed on the territory of the Ukrainian Republic, separated from it. However, it was soon destroyed and remained only among Ukrainian emigrants.

An opposition movement appeared in the church, called Renovationism. The beginning of the movement dates back to May 1922, it advocated a rapprochement between the church and the Soviet regime. During the period of the highest upsurge, it enjoyed the support of almost half of the ruling bishops (37 out of 73, and almost all Orthodox bishops were imprisoned). From the very beginning, it was heterogeneous and the various churches formed by the Renovationists never united. At a certain moment, Renovationism managed to bring the church closer to death - in some provinces there was not a single temple, not a single priest, but soon they began to disappear (when they were no longer useful to the authorities) and returned to the ROC. In 1946, its last foci disappeared.

After the death of Tikhon in 1924 and until 1943, the ROC again did not have a ruling patriarch. In the 1930s, groups, sects and churches separated from the ROC, which recognized Soviet power, and did not recognize the new power, considering it "the power of the Antichrist", and the Church as "the servant of the Antichrist." Some of these groups still exist in small numbers.

The powerful flourishing of the church, accompanying the introduction of perestroika and glasnost into the USSR, was overshadowed by two events - in 1990 the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church was restored and thus the end of the unity of Orthodoxy in Ukraine was put. In 1991 the autonomous Ukrainian Orthodox Church was formed, and in 1993 its Metropolitan Filaret passed to the Autocephalists. However, this could not destroy the ROC in Ukraine, and to this day it is the most numerous confession in the country. The second is the separation of the Estonian Diocese and its annexation to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

But, despite individual episodes, the revival of Orthodoxy is taking place today, obviously for everyone. Throughout Russia and the near abroad, the number of churches and parishes is growing. The social influence of the church is also growing.