Augustin de Betancourt and Molina, full name Augustin José Pedro del Carmen Domingo de Candelaria de Betancourt y Molina(Spanish) Agustín José Pedro del Carmen Domingo de Candelaria de Betancourt y Molina ; 1st of February ( 17580201 ) - July 14 (26)) - Spanish, then Russian statesman and scientist, lieutenant general of the Russian service, architect, builder, mechanical engineer and organizer of the transport system of the Russian Empire.

Biography

Augustin de Betancourt was born on February 1, 1758 in Spain in the city of Puerto de la Cruz on the island of Tenerife, into a family founded by the French ancestor Jean de Betancourt, who declared himself King of the Canary Islands in 1417.

Having received a comprehensive scientific education in Paris, Betancourt was sent by the Spanish government to the most cultural countries of Western Europe to observe various shipping systems, canals, steam engines, etc. Betancourt successfully completed this assignment. In 1798, he was entrusted with the construction of an optical telegraph between Madrid and Cadiz and the organization of a corps of railway engineers in Spain. In 1800 he was appointed inspector general of this corps and a member of the financial administration council, and in 1803 - quartermaster of the armies and chief director of posts.

The unrest that arose in Spain forced Betancourt to leave the country. He first went to Paris, and in 1808 to Russia, where he was accepted into service with the rank of major general. Here a wide field was open for him to apply his knowledge; he transformed the Tula Arms Factory, built a cannon foundry in Kazan, introduced new and improved old machines at the Aleksandrovskaya Manufactory, built the building of the Expedition for the Procurement of State Papers (where he personally invented most of the machines), the Moscow Excergauz, huge at that time (an indoor parade ground for holding military reviews, now Manezh), the guest courtyard of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair, the first bridge across the Neva River with the arrangement of the central embankment of St. Petersburg and various other buildings and structures. He took part in the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

According to Betancourt's project, a government agency was established in St. Petersburg, where he was appointed inspector general. The institute was opened on November 1, 1810. Betancourt made an important contribution to the development of the domestic system of higher engineering education in the 19th century, which was distinguished by a combination of fundamental, general engineering and special training. When drawing up the training program at the Institute, he wrote:

“The purpose of the institute is to supply Russia with engineers who, right after leaving it, could be assigned to carry out all sorts of work in the Empire.”

Activities in Nizhny Novgorod

Family

• Wife - Anna Jourdan (d.).
• He had three daughters (Karolina, Adeline and Matilda) and a son, Alfons Avgustovich (-), who rose to the rank of lieutenant general.

Memory

• On July 27, 1995, the Russian Ministry of Railways established a commemorative medal named after Betancourt, which is awarded to specialists for their outstanding personal contribution to the development of transport education.
• A street in Nizhny Novgorod is named after Betancourt, on which the Old Fair Cathedral, built according to his plan, is located.
• In November 2009, in connection with the 200th anniversary of the St. Petersburg State Transport University, the name of A. Betancourt was assigned to the fast branded train No. 25/26 “Smena” on the Moscow-St. Petersburg route.

Awards

• He was awarded a number of the highest Russian orders, up to and including the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky ().
• For samples of banknotes in denominations of 100, 50, 25, 10 and 5 rubles, developed by Betancourt and Khovansky in 1818, Alexander I awarded A. A. Betancourt the Order of St. Vladimir, 2nd degree.

Main scientific works

• “On the Expanding Power of Vapors” (Paris, 1790);
• “On a new system of inland navigation” (Paris, 1807);
• “Guide to the Compilation of Machines” (with H. M. Lantz, Paris, 1808, 1st edition; 1819, 2nd edition; 1840, 3rd edition, posthumous).

Betancourt's works

1810: Girl with a jug

Fountain in the Catherine Park of Tsarskoye Selo.

1817: Moscow Manege

1832: Alexander Column

The Alexander Column is a monument erected by the architect Auguste Montferrand by order of Emperor Nicholas I.

Montferrand worked for a relatively long time under the leadership of A. Betancourt. Betancourt designed the scaffolding and mechanisms for lifting the columns of St. Isaac's Cathedral, which were implemented by Montferrand. Based on these scaffoldings and mechanisms, Montferrand created a system of mechanisms, with the help of which he installed the Alexander Column on Palace Square in 1832. The ascent took place on August 30, 1832. To bring the giant monolith into a vertical state, it was necessary to attract the forces of 2,000 soldiers and 400 workers, who installed the monolith in place in 1 hour and 45 minutes.

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Notes

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• // Russian biographical dictionary: in 25 volumes. - St. Petersburg. -M., 1896-1918.
• Saint Petersburg. 300 + 300 biographies. Biographical Dictionary / St. Petersburg. 300 + 300 biographies. Biographical Glossary // Comp. G. Gopienko. - In Russian. and English language - M.: Markgraf, 2004. - 320 p. - Tyr. 5000 copies - ISBN 5-85952-032-8. - P. 31.

Links

• (link unavailable since 06/14/2016 (1127 days))

An excerpt characterizing Betancourt, Augustin Augustinovich

But he frowned angrily and at the same time painfully at her and leaned over the child with a glass. “Well, I want it,” he said. - Well, I beg you, give it to him.
Princess Marya shrugged her shoulders, but obediently took the glass and, calling the nanny, began to give the medicine. The child screamed and wheezed. Prince Andrei, wincing, holding his head, left the room and sat down on the sofa next door.
The letters were all in his hand. He mechanically opened them and began to read. The old prince, on blue paper, in his large, oblong handwriting, using titles here and there, wrote the following:
“I received very happy news at this moment through a courier, if not a lie. Bennigsen allegedly won complete victory near Eylau over Buonaparte. In St. Petersburg everyone is rejoicing; there is no end to the number of awards sent to the army. Although he is German, congratulations. The Korchevsky commander, a certain Khandrikov, I don’t understand what he’s doing: additional people and provisions have not yet been delivered. Now jump there and tell him that I will take his head off so that everything will be done in a week. I also received a letter from Petinka about the Battle of Preussisch Eylau, he took part - it’s all true. When people do not interfere with someone who should not be interfered with, then the German beat Buonaparti. They say he is running very upset. Look, jump to Korcheva immediately and do it!”
Prince Andrei sighed and opened another envelope. It was a finely written letter from Bilibin on two pieces of paper. He folded it without reading and again read his father’s letter, which ended with the words: “Ride to Korcheva and carry it out!” “No, excuse me, now I won’t go until the child recovers,” he thought and, going up to the door, looked into the nursery. Princess Marya still stood by the crib and quietly rocked the child.
“Yes, what else does he write that is unpleasant? Prince Andrey recalled the contents of his father’s letter. Yes. Ours won a victory over Bonaparte precisely when I was not serving... Yes, yes, everyone is making fun of me... well, that’s good for you...” and he began to read Bilibin’s French letter. He read without understanding half of it, he read only in order to at least for a minute stop thinking about what he had been thinking about exclusively and painfully for too long.

Bilibin was now in the capacity of a diplomatic official at the main headquarters of the army and, although in French, with French jokes and figures of speech, he described the entire campaign with exclusively Russian fearlessness in the face of self-condemnation and self-mockery. Bilibin wrote that his diplomatic discretion [modesty] tormented him, and that he was happy to have a faithful correspondent in Prince Andrei, to whom he could pour out all the bile that had accumulated in him at the sight of what was happening in the army. This letter was old, even before the Battle of Eylau.
"Depuis nos grands succes d"Austerlitz vous savez, mon cher Prince, wrote Bilibin, que je ne quitte plus les quartiers generaux. Decidement j"ai pris le gout de la guerre, et bien m"en a pris. Ce que j" ai vu ces trois mois, est incroyable.
“Je commence ab ovo. L'ennemi du genre humain, comme vous savez, s'attaque aux Prussiens. Les Prussiens sont nos fideles allies, qui ne nous ont trompes que trois fois depuis trois ans. Nous prenons fait et cause pour eux. Mais il se trouve que l "ennemi du genre humain ne fait nulle attention a nos beaux discours, et avec sa maniere impolie et sauvage se jette sur les Prussiens sans leur donner le temps de finir la parade commencee, en deux tours de main les rosse a plate couture et va s"installer au palais de Potsdam.
“J"ai le plus vif desir, ecrit le Roi de Prusse a Bonaparte, que V. M. soit accueillie et traitee dans mon palais d"une maniere, qui lui soit agreable et c"est avec empres sement, que j"ai pris a cet effet toutes les mesures que les circonstances me permettaient. Puisse je avoir reussi! Les generaux Prussiens se piquent de politesse envers les Francais et mettent bas les armes aux premieres sommations.
“Le chef de la garienison de Glogau avec dix mille hommes, demande au Roi de Prusse, ce qu"il doit faire s"il est somme de se rendre?... Tout cela est positif.
“Bref, esperant en imposer seulement par notre attitude militaire, il se trouve que nous voila en guerre pour tout de bon, et ce qui plus est, en guerre sur nos frontieres avec et pour le Roi de Prusse. Tout est au grand complet, il ne nous manque qu"une petite chose, c"est le general en chef. Comme il s"est trouve que les succes d"Austerlitz aurant pu etre plus decisifs si le general en chef eut ete moins jeune, on fait la revue des octogenaires et entre Prosorofsky et Kamensky, on donne la preference au derienier. Le general nous arrive en kibik a la maniere Souvoroff, et est accueilli avec des acclamations de joie et de triomphe.
“Le 4 arrive le premier courier de Petersbourg. On apporte les malles dans le cabinet du Marieechal, qui aime a faire tout par lui meme. On m"appelle pour aider a faire le triage des lettres et prendre celles qui nous sont destinees. Le Marieechal nous regarde faire et attend les paquets qui lui sont adresses. Nous cherchons – il n"y en a point. Le Marieechal deviant impatient, se met lui meme a la besogne et trouve des lettres de l"Empereur pour le comte T., pour le prince V. et autres. Alors le voila qui se met dans une de ses coleres bleues. Il jette feu et flamme contre tout le monde, s"empare des lettres, les decachete et lit cells de l"Empereur adressees a d"autres. Oh, that's what they do to me! I have no trust! Oh, they told me to keep an eye on me, that’s good; get out! Et il ecrit le fameux ordre du jour au general Benigsen
“I’m wounded, I can’t ride a horse, and therefore I can’t command an army. You brought your corps to Pultusk, broken up: here it is open, and without firewood, and without fodder, therefore it is necessary to help, and since yesterday we ourselves treated Count Buxhoeveden, we must think about a retreat to our border, which we must do today .
“From all my trips, ecrit il a l "Empereur, I received an abrasion from the saddle, which, in addition to my previous transportation, completely prevents me from riding and commanding such a vast army, and therefore I transferred the command of it to my senior general, Count Buxhoeveden, sending it to to him all duty and everything belonging to it, advising them, if there was no bread, to retreat closer to the interior of Prussia, because there was only enough bread left for one day, and other regiments had nothing, as division commanders Osterman and Sedmoretsky announced, and All the men were eaten; I myself, until I recover, remain in the hospital in Ostrolenka, about the number of which I most faithfully present, reporting that if the army stays in the current bivouac for another fifteen days, then in the spring there will not be a single healthy one left.
“Dismiss the old man to the village, who remains so disgraced that he could not fulfill the great and glorious lot to which he was chosen. I will await your most merciful permission here at the hospital, so as not to play the role of a clerk and not a commander in the army. Excommunicating me from the army will not make the slightest disclosure that the blind man has left the army. There are thousands of people like me in Russia.”
“Le Marieechal se fache contre l"Empereur et nous punit tous; n"est ce pas que with"est logique!
“Voila le premier acte. Aux suivants l"interet et le ridicule montent comme de raison. Apres le depart du Marieechal il se trouve que nous sommes en vue de l"ennemi, et qu"il faut livrer bataille. Boukshevden est general en chef par droit d"anciennete, mais le general Benigsen n"est pas de cet avis; d"autant plus qu"il est lui, avec son corps en vue de l"ennemi, et qu"il veut profiter de l"occasion d"une bataille „aus eigener Hand “ comme disent les Allemands. Il la donne. C"est la bataille de Poultousk qui est sensee etre une grande victoire, mais qui a mon avis ne l"est pas du tout, comme vous savez, une tres vilaine. habitude de decider du gain ou de la perte d"une bataille. Celui qui s"est retire apres la bataille, l"a perdu, voila ce que nous disons, et a ce titre nous avons perdu la bataille de Poultousk. Bref, nous nous retirons apres la bataille, mais nous envoyons un courrier a Petersbourg, qui porte les nouvelles d"une victoire, et le general ne cede pas le commandement en chef a Boukshevden, esperant recevoir de Petersbourg en reconnaissance de sa victoire le titre de general en chef. Pendant cet interregne, nous commencons un plan de man? uvres excessivement interessant et original. Boukshevden, qui par droit d"ancnnete serait notre chef. Nous poursuivons ce but avec tant d"energie, que meme en passant une riviere qui n"est ras gueable, nous brulons les ponts pour nous separer de notre ennemi, qui pour le moment, n"est pas Bonaparte, mais Boukshevden. Le general Boukshevden a manque etre attaque et pris par des forces ennemies superieures a cause d"une de nos belles man?uvres qui nous sauvait de lui. Boukshevden nous poursuit – nous filons. A peine passe t il de notre cote de la riviere, que nous repassons de l "autre. A la fin notre ennemi Boukshevden nous attrappe et s" attaque a nous. Les deux generaux se fachent. Il y a meme une provocation en duel de la part de Boukshevden et une attaque d "epilepsie de la part de Benigsen. Mais au moment critique le courrier, qui porte la nouvelle de notre victoire de Poultousk, nous apporte de Petersbourg notre nomination de general en chef, et le premier ennemi Boukshevden est enfonce: nous pouvons penser au second, a Bonaparte. Mais ne voila t il pas qu"a ce moment se leve devant nous un troisieme ennemi, c"est le Orthodox qui demande a grands cris du pain , de la viande, des souchary, du foin, – que sais je! Les magasins sont vides, les chemins impraticables. Le Orthodox se met a la Marieaude, et d"une maniere dont la derieniere campagne ne peut vous donner la moindre idee. La moitie des regiments forme des troupes libres, qui parcourent la contree en mettant tout a feu et a sang. Les habitants sont ruines de fond en comble, les hopitaux regorgent de malades, et la disette est partout. une de ces attaques on m"a importe ma malle vide et ma robe de chambre. L"Empereur veut donner le droit a tous les chefs de divisions de fusiller les Marieaudeurs, mais je crains fort que cela n"oblige une moitie de l"armee de fusiller l"autre.

Augustine, Aurelius, blessed, bishop of Hippo, famous teacher of the church. The son of the pagan Patricius and the most pious Christian Monica, he is born. at Tagaste, in Numidia, November 13, 353 and d. in Ippon, North Africa, August 28, 430. From Monica he inherited his ardent, loving nature, and through her prayers he turned to. His early life was stormy. When he received his initial education in his homeland, his ambitious father, flattered by his successes, sent him, in his 16th year, to Carthage, where he studied for three years. There, Cicero’s “Hortensius,” now lost to us, awakened in him a love of truth, and he began to study the Bible, but soon abandoned it because he did not like its style. From this time until his conversion, he tirelessly tried to achieve the highest good, but failed, although he temporarily found satisfaction in various philosophical and religious schools. He was first attracted to Manichaeism, and from 373–383 he was one of the “hearers,” or catechumens, of that sect. But the immorality of the “elect,” who were considered saints by the Manichaeans, and the superficiality of the system he noticed, plunged him for some time into skepticism, from which, however, Neoplatonism saved him. Meanwhile, he taught rhetoric in Tagaste and in Carthage, where he published his first work in 380: “On the practical and beautiful,” and in Rome. As a teacher, he was not particularly successful, and he was unable to maintain proper order among his students or earn money; and, however, he so demonstrated his teaching abilities that Symmachus, the Roman prefect, found it possible to send him to Milan when he was asked to recommend someone as a teacher of rhetoric. There he met St. Ambrose, and under his influence converted to Christianity (in September 386), being 32 years old, and was baptized in Mediolan on the eve of Easter, April 25, 387. On the way home, Monica died in Ostia; and the grief caused to him by this is touchingly poured out in his “Confession.” Having distributed everything that was left to him from his mother, he, upon returning to Tagaste, indulged in an ascetic life; but in 391 he was elected priest to the church in Ippon-Regius, and in 395 he became an assistant to Bishop Valerius, and soon afterwards a bishop. If the first period of his life was marked by various adventures that testified to a vague search for truth, then in the last period he appears to us as a great teacher of the church. From his diocese he waged a tireless struggle against various heresies. Manichaeans and Donatists, Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians fell under his blows; and the works he composed in the midst of these controversies gave him immortality, and gave the tone and direction to all subsequent theology of the Western Church. Two of his creations are especially remarkable: “Confession,” in which he, extremely humbly and frankly, with full recognition of all his sinful hobbies, reviews his life until the very time of his conversion; so that this book at the same time represents both a source of deep religious edification and the most reliable autobiography - and "On the City of God", in which he showed that Christ must survive the destruction of Rome, and thus gave consolation to those who, together with the blj. Jerome, mournfully exclaimed: “Who will be saved when Rome falls”? The last years of Augustine's life were extremely troubled. He saw Vandals overrun North Africa, and he had to lead the desperate defense of Ippon. But God, in His mercy, took him to Himself before the city fell, and thus delivered him from the greatest sorrow. At the beginning of the 16th century, his remains were transferred from Ippon to Sardinia; at the beginning of the 18th century. Liutprand, King of Lombardy, buried them in the church of St. Peter's in Pavia, where they remained until October 12, 1841, when the Bishop of Pavia formally handed them over to the Bishop of Algiers, who transferred them to Ippon, located near the present Bona, and buried them there in a church dedicated to his memory, October 30, 1841.

Blessed Augustine himself is the source of all our information about his sinful life before his conversion. Being sixteen years old, he joined the company of dissolute youth (years old, he was already the father of a son Adiodatus (God-given) by his concubine (they lived together, being faithful to each other; and Augustine says that his heart was “tormented, wounded, and bleeding " when he had to send her back to Africa because she was an obstacle to his legal marriage (age, and Augustine, finding this delay intolerable, took another concubine, and maintained this new relationship until the age of thirty-three, until the hand of God Christ did not finally free him from the temptations of the flesh, and the light of the Gospel did not illuminate his heart. The fact that the greatest teacher of the Western Church was at first a slave of sin was of deep instructiveness for the Christian world, because after his conversion he was able to instruct and strengthen his brothers. a man who knew from long and bitter experience that he who sins against God does evil to his own soul. But, judging him, we must remember that at that time he was still a pagan, and, judging by the pagan level of morality, comparatively innocent. After his conversion, he not only renounced all illicit relationships, but devoted himself entirely to a single life for the sake of the kingdom of God, and never broke his vow.

Blessed Augustine is one of the teachers of the universal Church. He is equally revered by all Christian confessions, and especially by the confessions of the Western Church, where Roman Catholicism competes in this respect with Protestantism. He was at the same time the greatest preacher, who quickly composed his sermons; and if many of his creations were written with a deliberate purpose, then still more of them appeared as the result of instant inspiration, and as the expression of a present need. Although he was not a scholar like Blessed Jerome, because he knew little Greek and no Hebrew at all, he had a deeper spiritual understanding of the Holy Scriptures than any of the Western teachers of the church. For all his shortcomings, he deservedly enjoys the respect of the Christian world. Rarely has anyone come out in defense of the truth with greater determination and fearlessness; Rarely has anyone been distinguished by a more sublime spirit. The mother's joy at her son's conversion to Christianity resonated throughout the Christian world when it became known that Augustine had dedicated his brilliant mind and wonderful abilities to the service of Christ. To understand Augustine means to understand the entire previous history of philosophy and theology, and at the same time the reasons for the subsequent successes of Christianity in the West. Thus, it is an expression of the dividing line between the church in the period of persecution and the church in the time of victory. He ended the first period, and began a new period in its development.

In the field of theology, St. Augustine completed an entire era: he ended the debate about the Trinity and Christology and, by raising questions of anthropology, opened new paths for theological thought. Let us briefly outline the main features of his theology, which, it should be noted, has always been more critical than theoretical in nature. Having established a firm and definite doctrine about the Holy Trinity and about Christ, Blessed. Augustine dealt especially much with anthropological questions, that is, with questions about man’s relationship to God. This includes primarily questions about sin and grace. In the doctrine of sin, Bl. Augustine, trying to eliminate both Manichaean and Pelagian one-sidedness, especially insisted on the weakness caused to man by sin, and, as far as possible, limited human freedom. Evil, according to him, is deprivation, denial and weakening of any spiritual power, especially will; good is positive and is the fruit of God's activity. He allows only such freedom of choice as is absolutely necessary in order to reject the accusation from God as the cause of evil. During the Fall, man made a bad choice, and the consequences became hereditary. And, however, a person has the opportunity to achieve salvation, since his nature in itself is not criminal, but only corrupted; the mind has fallen into ignorantia, and the will into infirmitas. In Adam the human race had some pre-existence; and thus when he fell, the whole human race fell. Sin is a constant inclination in man, essentially evil, tending toward alienation from God. This teaching is opposite to the Pelagian idea of ​​balance - the ability to take one direction or another. Every individual person is also involved in the sin that weighs on the entire race. Punishment and guilt are therefore hereditary. But a person can be freed from these consequences of sin with the help of grace. Contrary to the Pelagians, who put forward the possibility of salvation through man’s own efforts, the blj. Augustine insisted on the absolute necessity of grace as a saving power. Grace, according to his teaching, is absolutely necessary: ​​a) for the very beginning of the saving process, i.e. for arousing in a person saving faith and good activity and b) for the continuation and final completion of the work of salvation, i.e. for continuation and consolidation in a man of faith and good work. Grace acts irresistibly, although it does not deprive a person of freedom of self-determination. The interaction of grace and freedom consists of the process of salvation, the goal of which is the destruction in man of sin, guilt for sin and punishment for it. The main conditions for the feasibility of this process: faith and good deeds, as a result of the grace-filled healing of the mind and will of fallen man. But at the heart of this process lies divine predestination. Although Blessed Augustine attached great importance to predestination as an act of divine wisdom, he did not attach unconditional significance to this predestination to the exclusion of all self-activity of human freedom. At this point the teaching of Blessed. Augustine was subject to various misinterpretations, especially from the Reformed. But in reality, he expresses only such a doctrine of predestination, which does not go beyond the boundaries of Orthodox theology, which is quite clear from a comparison of his teaching with the teaching of the “Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs”. Based on this comparison, Professor L. Pisarev, in his dissertation on St. Augustine, directly says that “Augustine’s teaching can be accepted as an example of true Orthodox Christian teaching” (p. 356). Concluding his study, the same scholarly researcher defines the meaning of blzh. Augustine as a theologian: “Developing his teaching, mainly in contrast to the errors of the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians, he first of all rendered a service to Christianity in the sense that with his teaching he fundamentally undermined the basic principles of the worldview of his opponents. He proved that Pelagianism, in particular, concealed in its basic provisions a heresy that was in complete contradiction with the main points of Christian teaching. Along with this purely negative service, he also provided a positive service for Christian Science with his teaching. He undoubtedly took a step forward in revealing Christian anthropological teachings. The fact is that before him only the main points of this teaching were outlined. It was expressed by the fathers of previous times only in the form of fragmentary judgments without any, at least visible, relation to the general system of Christian doctrine. As for the blzh. Augustine, he was the first in the history of Christian theology to engage in a more detailed elucidation of anthropological teaching and presented the entire group of anthropological views of Christianity in the form of a coherent and harmonious worldview. From this it is clear why it is precisely in the anthropological teachings of the famous Bishop of Ipponia that the loud glory and fame that is usually associated with his name lies primarily. “In the name of the blessed one. Augustine,” says Ritter, “first of all, everyone imagines his disputes with the Pelagians, during which he revealed the doctrine of the relationship of divine grace to human freedom.” It should be noted that the merits of Blessed Augustine in this regard can be compared with the merits of the great fathers and teachers of the Eastern Church, such as: St. Athanasius of Alexandria, St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory the Theologian, St. Gregory of Nyssa. Just as these latter were representatives of the theological and philosophical disclosure of the true Christian teachings of the Eastern Church during its struggle against various heretical false teachings, so were the blessed ones. Augustine was the pillar and stronghold of the Western Church during its struggle against the false teachings of the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians. Just as the former, in the fight against heresies, created the theological part of Christian dogma, so the latter, in the fight against the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians, created the anthropological part of this dogma.”

Blessed Augustine did not limit himself only to the fight against heresies and schisms. He understood that the main enemy of Christianity is paganism, on the soil of which the tares of heresies and schisms grow, and therefore decided to deal a decisive blow to it, which he did in his famous essay “On the City of God” - De Civitate Dei. This work is one of the greatest apologetic works of the ancient church, and above it is the blessed one. Augustine worked for 14 years - from 413 to 426. The reason for its composition was the defeat of Rome by Alaric in 410 and the task of the blessed. Augustine wanted to refute the complaints of the pagans that all the disasters that the Roman Empire had to experience at that time were due to the Christians, because of their anger the gods who created the greatness of Rome took away their protection from it. The situation was truly terrible. The collapse of the universal power of Rome caused extraordinary confusion among the peoples, since with the decline of Rome the entire ancient world fell and a new world was born through unimaginable torment, which had not yet promised anything definite and only aroused vague fears and weak hopes. It was necessary to somehow understand the turmoil of such an era, and Blessed Augustine gave a great experience in clarifying the destinies of the historical life of mankind in this creation, giving a calming explanation of the historical upheavals experienced and setting out general principles for understanding the ways of God’s economy in history. From this side, the creation “On the City of God” has a philosophical and historical character, so it is not without reason that the bl. Augustine is called the "father of the philosophy of history." The main idea of ​​creation is that the whole world is one great kingdom, the ruler of which is God, who arranges everything according to His great grace and wisdom; but this kingdom, due to human sinfulness, split into two completely different cities - the earthly city and the heavenly city, of which in the first the desire for earth and flesh prevails, and in the second - for heaven and spirituality. There is a constant struggle between these cities, which explains various historical vicissitudes, and at times the earthly city takes precedence over the heavenly city. But this is only a temporary triumph, which will end with the complete victory of the heavenly city, and then the complete kingdom of God will be established on earth. – This creation is generally replete with deep philosophical and historical thoughts, which make the study of it very fruitful not only for the theologian, but also for any historian.

- Blessed memory Augustine in the West on August 28, in the East and here on June 15 (according to Philar. and Serg.). His name is not, however, either in the Prologue or in the Cht.-Min. (Makar. and Dm. Rost.), nor in general in the ancient Slavic-Russian monthly books (not in the Synod. M. 1891). In the Greek verse synaxarions it is shown under June 15, under this date it is also listed in the Synaxarist of Nicodemus (1819), with the following inscription: “ Μνήμη σου ἐν Ἀγίοις Πατρος ἡμῶν Ἀυγουστίνου, Επισκόπου Ἱππώνος ”, a poem (couple) is given to him and a note briefly outlines his life. From Synax. Nicodemus, the Reverends Philaret and Sergius brought the name of Blessed. Augustine in his Months, without any instructions regarding the celebration of his memory in the East.

– The works of Blessed Augustine can be divided into a) autobiographical, which includes “Confessions”, “Corrections”, and “Letters”; b) polemical: treatises against the Manichaeans, Donatists, Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians; c) dogmatic: “Enchiridion”, and other theological treatises; d) exegetical: “Commentary” on a significant part of the Bible; f) practical: sermons and moral treatises. The best edition of Augustine's works is the Benedictine, Paris, 1679–1700, in 11 volumes. folio, reprinted by Gaume, Paris, 1836–39, in vol. 11, and by Minem, Paris, 1841, vol. 10; 2nd ed., 1863, 11 volume. The most important of his works were translated into Russian at the Kyiv Theological Academy (in eight parts, 1879–1895).

“Confession” is the autobiography of the blessed one. Augustine until his return to Africa (388), and his “Corrections” (427) survey his entire literary life. His student, Possidius, c. 432, wrote the first Vita Sancti Augustini published by the Benedictines (Vol. X, Appendix, pp. 257–280), together with his own biography (Vol. XI, pp. 1–492, in Minh Vol. I, pp. 66– 578). A detailed biography of the blessed one. Augustine, see op. Farrar, “The Life and Works of the Fathers and Teachers of the Church,” trans. A. P. Lopukhina.

Regarding the theology of St. Augustine, see a detailed study A. Dorner: Augustinus, sein theologisches System und seine religions-philosophische Anschauung, Berlin, 1873, For the philosophy of Augustine, see Nourrison: La philosophie de saint Augustin, 2d ed. Paris, 1866, 2 vols.; Prof. Erneste Naville:St. Augustin, Geneva, 1872; J. Storz: Die Philosophie des heiligen Augustinus, Freiburg im Br., 1882. – In Russian the most famous works in literature: Arch. Sergius. “Teaching of the Blessed. Augustine in connection with the circumstances of his life." (Readings in the Society of Lovely Spiritual Enlightenment, 1887, p. 431). M. Krasin. The creation of the blessed Augustine “De civitate Dei, as an apology for Christianity in the fight against paganism”, doctoral thesis. dissertation Rodnikov N. prof. Kaz. spirit. acad. “Teaching of the Blessed. Augustine on the relationship between church and state in comparison with the teachings of the fathers, teachers and writers of the church of the first four centuries and the medieval, that is, critical theologians of the Western Church.” Kazan, 1897 Prince Trubetskoy, “The religious and moral ideal of Western Christianity in the 5th century. Part I. Worldview of the Blessed. Augustine. Moscow. 1892. Skvortsov, "Blzh. Augustine as a psychologist” (Proceedings of the Kiev spiritual academician. 1870. No. 4–6). D. Gusev, prof. “Anthropological views of the blessed. Augustine in connection with the teaching of Pelagianism" (Orthodox Interlocutor, 1874. No. 7, pp. 271–334). L. Pisarev, “The Doctrine of St. Augustine about man in his relation to God.” Kazan. 1894. A. P. Lopukhin, The ways of God's Providence in the history of mankind. An experience of philosophical and historical substantiation of the views of St. Augustine and Bossuet. Ed. 2nd. St. Petersburg 1898.

Like many other architects and engineers of that time, Augustin de Betancourt and Molina came to Russia from abroad. In 1808, at the invitation of the Russian ambassador to Spain, he arrived at a meeting in Erfurt with Emperor Alexander I. Since then, the Spanish engineer has found not only a new place of service, but also a new name - Augustin Augustinovich Betancourt.

French accent

It seemed impossible for Betancourt to remain in his native Spain. Napoleon marched victoriously across Europe and in 1807 overtook Spain, whose royal dynasty was forced to abdicate the throne. However, the Spanish people did not want to surrender to their long-time sworn enemy - France, and waged one of the most brutal guerrilla wars in the entire history of Europe.

Any ruler would consider it an honor to have an engineer like Augustin de Betancourt on his scientific staff, and Napoleon could not miss this opportunity. The conqueror offered the Spaniard cooperation, but was refused, despite the generous promises of the emperor and the close ties of Betancourt himself with the French scientific school.

The blood of French ancestors flowed in the veins of the Spanish subject. His distant great-great-grandfather Jean de Bettencourt was a French conqueror who first discovered the future stronghold for communication with South America - the Canary Islands, and almost became the king of the archipelago, if not for the unrest of the aborigines. Since then, the Betancourt family lived in the Canary Islands, where the hero of our story was born.

A message from Madrid to Cadiz was transmitted by telegraph in 50 seconds

During his life, the engineer visited his ancestral home, France, several times, where he received an excellent education and competed with his colleague Chappe for the right to be called the creator of the first optical telegraph. This was, in fact, the first “technical weapons” race in the history of Europe, and its result depended on who would be the first to gain an advantage in command of the troops scattered throughout the region.

Optical telegraph station

The French government preferred Chappe's less advanced model. But later, by order of the Spanish king Charles IV, Betancourt designed a telegraph line from Madrid to Cadiz. The encoded message traveled a distance of more than 600 km in 50 seconds, which for a person of that time was similar to “witchcraft” - this is what the Holy Inquisition called this great achievement of the Spanish engineer, who accused Betancourt of serving the devil.

Miraculous transformation

Since 1808, a new era began in the fate of Betancourt, which lasted until the end of his days. Arriving in Russia, the engineer immediately received not only a salary of 20 thousand rubles a year, but also an order to create the Institute of Railways in St. Petersburg.

The Yusupov Palace on the Fontanka was chosen as the educational building, which they sold for use to the state at a symbolic price. Betancourt adapted the system he himself had been taught in Paris and invited foreign colleagues. The first graduates from their student days immediately found themselves in the engineering regiments of the Russian army: in the War of 1812, newly minted engineers helped with the construction of crossings and bridges, which was noted in a special order by Field Marshal General M.B. Barclay de Tolly. Subsequently, Betancourt considered this his personal contribution to the fight against Napoleon the invader.

Graduates of the Institute of Railways took part in the War of 1812

Before coming to Russia, Betancourt was already a world-famous scientist. In Russia, he also revealed himself as a teacher and a skillful organizer of large-scale projects. It was he who was entrusted with the development of St. Petersburg after the War of 1812. Despite recently turning a century old, the capital of the Russian Empire still did not match the level of other European cities. Under the leadership of Betancourt, Nevsky Prospekt was transformed into the main artery of the city that we now know: sidewalks were built, and oil lanterns were lit in the evenings. Betancourt wanted to install gas stations on smaller streets - Gorokhovaya and Bolshaya Morskaya, but, as always, his idea was ahead of its time and was not brought to life.

Nevsky Prospekt at the beginning of the 19th century

Augustin Augustinovich Betancourt was appointed head of the Hydraulic Works Committee. Thanks to the Spanish engineer, water supply and sewerage were established in St. Petersburg, the building area and the network of canals were expanded. Instead of dilapidated wooden bridges across the Neva, according to the instructions and design of Betancourt, majestic bridges were built, including Kamennoostrovsky. It was this bridge that survived the terrible flood of 1824, described by Pushkin in the poem “The Bronze Horseman”.

The bridge built by Betancourt survived a terrible flood

Betancourt's name is immortalized in the creation of such wonders of the “open-air museum” as St. Isaac's Cathedral and the Alexandrian Column. Firstly, it was he who suggested inviting the young and then little-known Auguste de Montferrand to work on both projects. Secondly, the engineering genius designed a lifting structure that made it possible to install the gigantic elements of St. Isaac's Colonnade and the pearl of Palace Square.

Installation of the Alexandria Column using the Betancourt mechanism

Another grandiose structure to which Betancourt is directly related is, as mentioned earlier, the Moscow Manege. In terms of scale, the Manege is close to St. Mark's Square in Venice, and its creators were faced with the task of covering a space 45 meters wide with a roof without additional piles inside the room. Betancourt designed a unique ceiling of 45 trusses resting exclusively on the walls of the Manege. Fortunately for the descendants, the master left a detailed manual about his innovative development, thanks to which in 2004 it was possible to restore the collapsed roof.

Spanish-Russian soul

During the first 10 years in Russia, Augustin Augustinovich Betancourt managed to settle well. According to the recollections of his contemporaries, he was thin and short in stature, but he loved to eat delicious food, and Russian dishes quickly became part of his diet. True, he never learned Russian, making do with French, which was common in high society. On Sundays, instead of a Spanish aperitif, he drank two glasses of vodka before dinner and loved to take a steam bath in a Russian bathhouse in the company of another foreigner - Martos, the author of the monument to Minin and Pozharsky.

Yusupov Palace on the Fontanka, where Betancourt lived and worked

Betancourt also had extremely friendly relations with the Russian Emperor. He was one of the few who was allowed into the office of Alexander I without requesting an audience and with whom the rather secretive emperor shared his thoughts on state affairs. Augustin Augustinovich even made his contribution to the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, advising the sovereign to approve the Cadiz Cortes - the constituent assembly of revolutionary Spain - and the constitution they adopted in 1812. By the way, later the Cortes abolished all religious orders operating in the territory of part of Spain and the activities of the Holy Inquisition, which had once reproached Betancourt for “witchcraft.”

Augustine Betancourt was friendly with Emperor Alexander I

However, over time, Augustin Augustinovich began to gain more and more enemies among influential people and architects who were jealous of the master’s success. He was accused of inappropriately wasting government money on overly large-scale projects. In addition, at the Institute of Railways, the already aged Betancourt had a competitor - the Duke of Württemburg, who was a relative of the emperor. The services of the Spanish engineer to the Russian Empire were soon forgotten. The last straw was the appropriation of all achievements in the development of Betancourt's brainchild - the Institute of Railways - to his rival, the Duke of Württemburg. Augustin Augustinovich Betancourt died suddenly, and his name remained in oblivion for a long time.

Portrait from the 1810s. Author unknown.

Augustin de Betancourt and Molina, full name Augustin José Pedro del Carmen Domingo de Candelaria de Betancourt y Molina(Spanish: Agustín José Pedro del Carmen Domingo de Candelaria de Betancourt y Molina) - Spanish, then Russian statesman and scientist, lieutenant general of the Russian service, architect, builder, mechanical engineer and organizer of the transport system of the Russian Empire.

Augustin Betancourt was born in Spain, in the Canary Islands, on the island of Tenerife on February 1, 1758. He came from an ancient and very influential noble family, both in ancient times and to this day. The founder of the family was the famous navigator Jean (Juan) de Betancourt, a Norman nobleman, conqueror of the Canary Islands. The Catholic saint Pedro de San José Betancourt supposedly belonged to this family. Of the living representatives of the family, the most famous are Liliane Betancourt, owner of L'Oréal and Colombian politician and senator Ingrid Betancourt.

Augustine Betancourt received his education in Paris. The Spanish government sent Betancourt to France, England, Germany and the Netherlands to become familiar with canal navigation systems, new steam engines and other discoveries in the field of technology. Then in London he studied machines for draining gold and silver mines.

In 1798, Betancourt was entrusted with the organization of the Spanish Corps of Railway Engineers. In Spain, he was appointed inspector general of the royal cabinet of machinery, quartermaster of the army, and chief director of posts.

In 1801, Betancourt left his fatherland and moved to Paris. In France, he published a number of scientific papers on hydraulics and created a design for a new sluice designed for small canals. In the fall of 1807, Augustine Betancourt came to Russia and was accepted into the civil service with the rank of major general, but two years later he became a lieutenant general.

Betancourt brilliantly confirmed his reputation as a scientist and mechanical engineer: under his leadership, the Tula Arms Plant was refurbished and equipped with steam engines, the Taitsky water pipeline was built, which supplied Tsarskoe Selo with water; he owns a fundamentally new solution for constructing an arched bridge system in Tula, Izhora, Peterhof, and in St. Petersburg on Kamenny Island; he supervised the construction and equipment of a foundry in Kazan, drew up designs and supervised the construction of the famous Nizhny Novgorod fair. One of Betancourt’s significant works was the construction of a huge exertzirhaus (a room for military exercises in inclement weather) in Moscow - the well-known Manezh, the ingenious ceilings of which, created by Betancourt, survived until 2004.

Betancourt's contribution to the development of engineering education in Russia is especially great. On his initiative and project, the country's first Institute of Railway Engineers was founded in St. Petersburg in 1809. To house this educational institution, the state treasury purchased the palace of Prince Yusupov on the Fontanka. At Betancourt's suggestion, the French officer Sennover was appointed director of the institute. The trustees were the Prince of Oldenburg and Lieutenant General Betancourt himself, who was appointed head of the institute.

In 1816, Betancourt became the chairman of the newly established Committee for Buildings and Hydraulic Works in St. Petersburg, essentially an institution that supervised all construction work in the city.

Since 1819, he has headed the Main Directorate of Communications. This talented engineer owns a number of inventions. He created a unique machine for cleaning the waters of the Kronstadt seaport.

In 1820, on the initiative of Betancourt, the School of Railway Conductors and the Military Construction School for training junior specialists in builders and foremen, craftsmen, and draftsmen for the railway department were opened, which marked the beginning of the state system of special secondary technical education in Russia.

Augustine Betancourt was a member of scientific societies in Russia and Europe; he authored scientific works published in Paris, London, St. Petersburg and other European cities. The devices and mechanisms created by him have found wide application in construction.

Betancourt created a school of widely educated engineers. His students took part in the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral (including the famous Montferrand).

Betancourt died on July 26 (July 14, old style) 1824. He was buried in St. Petersburg at the Smolensk Lutheran Cemetery and reburied in 1979 in the Necropolis of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

The grave of A. A. Betancourt at the Lazarevskoye cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg.

In the year of the 300th anniversary of St. Petersburg, in tribute to the famous scientist and engineer Augustine Betancourt, a monument was erected in front of the building of the St. Petersburg State University of Transport (PGUPS), the founder and first rector of which he was. The author of the monument project is sculptor, Honored Cultural Worker of the RSFSR, Academician Vladimir Gorevoy.

Text from the book:

Famous Kronstadt residents. - St. Petersburg: Russian classics. 2012. - 336 p. Page 42 - 43.

Note:
* In the Canary Islands, the surname Bettencourt is borne by both the descendants of Jean de Bettencourt's nephew Macio, who replaced his uncle as ruler of the Canaries, and the descendants of the natives - the Guanches, to whom Jean de Bettencourt gave his surname at baptism

Aurelius [lat. Aurelius Augustinus] (11/13/354, Tagasta, Numidia; modern Suk-Akhras, Algeria - 08/28/430, Hippo Regius, ibid.; modern Annaba, ibid.), bl., in the west. traditions of St. (mem. June 15, Greek June 28, zap. Aug. 28), bishop. Hipponian [Hipponian] (from 395 or 396), the most prominent lat. theologian, philosopher, one of the great Westerners. teachers of the Church.

Life

A. is traditionally divided into periods: from birth to Baptism (387), to acceptance of the priesthood (391), priestly and episcopal service. The main source for the early period is his autobiographical opus. "Confession" (finished in 397 or 400). The corrections that must be made when using this work, given that it was written by A. at the age of 45, when he was already a bishop and a famous scientist, do not reduce the historical authenticity of the Confession, relating mainly to minor details ( for example, passages replete with quotations from the Psalter that convey the inner speech of young A., who did not yet know the Holy Scriptures, are a clear result of the literary and theological refraction of the original inner experience). For the time since 388, important sources are the Life of Augustine, written by his friend, student and colleague Possidio, bishop. Kalamsky, as well as the epistolary heritage of A.

1st period (354-387)

His mother, St., had a huge influence on the development of A.’s personality. Monica, a zealous Christian who managed to instill in the child a love for the name of the Savior (according to the custom of that time, A. was not baptized in childhood, but only announced) and was deeply affected by the vicissitudes of her son’s spiritual misadventures. A.'s father, Patricius, who belonged to the class of poor provincial nobility (curials), received Baptism only for a few minutes. days before death (371). He made great efforts to give A. a good education, which opened the way to the position of rhetorician or lawyer; Due to the lack of his own funds, he had to resort to the help of philanthropists.

Having received his primary education in his native Tagaste, A. studied at the grammar and rhetoric school of the neighboring city of Madavra (363-366). The school gave him a thorough knowledge of Latin. literature and the necessary rhetorical skills (A. knew the Greek language poorly and improved his knowledge somewhat only in adulthood). To continue his education, A. went to Carthage (369). In the capital of Rome. In Africa, young A. indulged in a “rubbish life,” but soon reading Cicero’s dialogue “Hortensius” (today known only in fragments) kindled in him a “love of wisdom,” illuminating the ideal of a contemplative life; Around the same time (summer 372), A.’s son Adeodatus was born. However, during this period A. did not find the “truth” in the Church. First acquaintance with St. Scripture left an unfavorable impression on him: the religion of Christians seemed to him insufficiently rational and philosophical, and the language of Lat. translation of the Bible - “Italas” (Vetus Itala, see Bible. Translations) - seemed rough, dark and far from ancient models. A.'s attention was attracted to Manichaeism for almost 10 years. Manichaean materialistic dualism, in which salvation was considered as the liberation of particles of “light substance” and their return to the “region of light,” offered, as it seemed to A. then, a rational explanation of the world. In addition, Manichaean ethics, which divided adherents of the teaching into impeccable “initiates” and “listeners”, to whom strict moral requirements were not imposed, allowed A. to maintain contact with his concubine - the mother of Adeodate.

After completing his education, A. returned to Tagasta, where he began teaching grammar and rhetoric (373). The following year he moved to Carthage, where he continued teaching and began scientific activities. Gradually, the fascination with Manichaeism began to pass, which was facilitated by A.’s meeting with one of the Manichaean authorities, Faustus Milevsky, who showed his complete failure, as well as acquaintance with the skeptical philosophy of the New Academy. In 383, A. with his family and friends (Navigius, Alypius, Nebridius) moved to Rome; in the fall of next year he receives a position as a teacher of rhetoric, and a year later - an official position. rhetorician in Mediolan (modern Milan), where the residence of Western Romans was then located. emperors.

Here comes A.’s final disappointment in Manichaeism, in which he never found answers to the questions that worried him; After a short period of fascination with skepticism, A. became acquainted in Mediolan with certain books of the Neoplatonic philosophers Plotinus and Porphyry in translations by Victorina Maria. Having seen significant similarities between the Neoplatonic doctrine of the Second Principle (Mind) and Christ. teaching about the Word of God (Logos), A. perceived Neoplatonism as a philosophy closest to Christianity, although he realized that there were serious differences between them.

In Mediolan A. listens to the sermons of St. Ambrose of Milan, attending Sunday services as a catechumen. From Ambrose he first learned about the method of allegorical interpretation of St. Scripture, which opened up the possibility of interpreting those passages of the Old Testament that the Manichaeans considered “unworthy” and “tempting.” According to A. himself, the main obstacles on the way to the Church at that time remained his attachment to carnal pleasures and the ambition of a careerist. In the book. VIII “Confession” describes the conversion to faith that A. experienced in 386; its culmination is a wonderful scene in the garden, when, hearing a child’s voice singing the words “tolle lege” (take, read), A. took the book of the Epistles that he had. Paul and, having read the passage discovered at random (Rom 13:13-14), perceived it as a divine calling. From that moment on, A. decided to leave his secular career. For philosophical reflection and preparation for Baptism, A. retired to Kassitsiak (the estate of Verekund, one of his friends), where he created the first of the works that have come down to us. Finally, on Easter 387, A., together with his son Adeodate and friend Alipius, received Baptism from St. Ambrose.

2nd period (387-391)

After Baptism, A. prepared to return to his homeland, but the sudden death of his mother detained him in Italy for another year. In the fall of 388, A. returned to Tagasta and, having donated all his property to the needs of the local Church, began to lead an ascetic lifestyle. A.'s fame as a scientist and theologian grew and soon spread throughout Africa. In 391, during a chance visit to Hippo, Regius A., at the insistence of the local community, was ordained a presbyter. His duties included teaching and preaching, which the elderly Bishop of Hippo, the Greek Valery, could not cope with.

3rd period (391-430)

During his priesthood, A. founded the first monastery in Numidia with strict rules of community life and devoted himself entirely to church affairs: he preached, interpreted the Holy Scriptures. Scriptures, polemics with the Manichaeans. In 395 Bp. Valery, foreseeing his imminent death, made A. his vicar, obtaining permission to ordain him as a bishop. The following year after the death of Bishop. Valeria A. took the episcopal see of Hippo Regius, where he remained until his death. During the 35 years of his episcopate, A. had to resolve many church issues and protect his flock from heresies and schisms. His activities and creative heritage of this time are usually divided into stages in connection with the main directions of his polemics.

The initial stage (390-400) is anti-Manichaean. Open disputes with adherents of Manichaeism often turned out to be productive (conversion of Felix the Manichaean, etc.). The situation was worse with Donatism, which had spread in Africa at that time, and the intense struggle with the Crimea marked the next stage (400-412). We can say that A. was the most outstanding fighter against this split. Since lit. the controversy led nowhere; in 411, for the condemnation of the Donatists in Carthage with the assistance of the emperor. Honorius convened a Council, in which A. played a key role; many Donatist bishops, together with their flock, joined the Church, and yet only repressive measures on the part of the state. authorities led to a final turning point in the fight against the split. Although some historians believe that it was A. who first substantiated the admissibility of religions. coercion and persecution, his letters indicate that he tried in every possible way to soften the harshness of Rome. legal practice (torture, etc.) applied to schismatics after imp. the decrees put them in the position of criminals (cf. Ep. 185 and 133). Immediately after the victory over the Donatists, the struggle against Pelagianism begins (412-420). In 412, A. participated in the Council of Carthage against Celestius, a follower of Pelagius, and wrote his first anti-Pelagian works. In 416, the new Council of Carthage re-condemned Celestius, as well as Pelagius himself. The polemic with the latter cost A. a lot of work, because in Rome Pelagius was either condemned or found support and justification. Even after the decisions of the Great Council of Carthage (Consilium generale, 418), Pelagianism had many supporters. In addition, various rumors arose within this movement. All this forced A. to continue writing against the Pelagians until 428. In the heat of polemics with the teachings of Pelagius, A. formulated the doctrine of the sovereignty of grace in that rigoristic form, which is known as the doctrine of the predestination of saints and the prejudgment of sinners; It is at this point that A.’s opinion contains the largest number of controversial provisions and must be corrected by the judgments of other Church Fathers who developed the doctrine of synergy (primarily St. John Cassian). In the last years of his life, A. was forced to enter into the fight against the Arian heresy, which had once again raised its head.

In 426, A., weakened by old age and illness, chose Rev. Irakli, to whom he transferred some of his responsibilities. In 430, Hippo was besieged by those who invaded the North. Africa from Spain vandals. During the siege, A. fell ill and died peacefully on the 10th day of his illness at the age of 76. The bishop's latest orders - about church property and about the library - characterize him as a true shepherd and a man of extraordinary learning.

Posthumous veneration

A. was buried, in all likelihood, in the Hippo Cathedral (basilica pacis). The Venerable Bede reports about two transfers of his relics (Chronicon de sex aetatibus mundi // Chronica minora / Ed. Th. Mommsen. B., 1898. T. 3. P. 21; Martyrologium // PL. 94. Col. 1023), the testimony of which is repeated by Paul the Deacon (Hist. Langobard. VI 48 // PL. 95. Col. 655), as well as lat. martyrologists of the 9th-12th centuries. It is assumed that both transfers were associated with the flight of Christians from the Arabs. invasions: 1st (from Africa to Sardinia) - at the end. 7th century, 2nd (from Sardinia to Pavia, the capital of the Lombard kingdom) - under cor. Liutprande (712-744). A.'s tomb in Pavia in the c. San Pietro in Chiel d'oro was entrusted with the maintenance and decoration of the Benedictine monks, and from 1221 to the regular canons (from 1331 together with the Augustinians). After the latter were forced to leave the Church of San in 1785 -Pietro, the relics were transferred to the Cathedral of Pavia in 1799, but in 1900 they were returned to the former church, again entrusted to the Augustinians. Here they rest under the altar (throne), crowned with a marble arch by G. Bonuccio from Pisa, 1362. A.’s relics were identified twice (1022; 1728) and were recognized as authentic (by Popes Benedict VIII and Benedict XIII, respectively). A.’s memory as a saint is first found in Jerome’s martyrology (Aug. 28); ." (Aug. 29).The beginning of widespread veneration of A. in the West dates back to the pontificate of Benedict II (684-685), during which, through the efforts of Caesar of Arles, the Roman Church accepted the doctrine of A. about grace. The spread of the cult of A. occurred thanks to the activities of monastic orders. adherents of the Augustinian Rule; Augustinian monks celebrated the memory of the saint 5 times a year: birth (August 28), conversion (May 5, later April 24), 2 transfers of relics (February 28 or 29 and October 11, the latter was abolished at Pius X), reunion of the relics (June 5; celebrated in 1338-1343). The heyday of the veneration of A. occurred in the 12th-13th centuries. Since that time, churches consecrated in honor of Bishop of Hippo. On the site of the ruins of ancient Hippo in modern Algeria, the tomb of A. was built, where his relics are kept.

The history of the veneration of A. in the East. The church begins, apparently, only in the post-Byzantine period. There are two known services of A., compiled by the Athonite mon. Jacob (Smyrna, 1861) and Archimandrite. John Danilidis (Athens, 1914). In Russian Monthly memory of A. (June 15) was introduced in the 19th century. from Greek "Synaxarist" by Nicodemus the Holy Mountain. In modern Typikonakh Russian and Greek Church memory of A. is not indicated. In 1991, in the metropolis of Phocis (Hellenic Church), the Monastery of A. (Augustine-Seraphim of Sarov male monastery) was founded, where particles of the relics of the blessed one and his mother St. are kept. Monica.

Essays

Lit. A.'s legacy is enormous: 133 separate works, 218 of his letters, approx. 400 sermons. Such prolificacy of A. is especially surprising if we take into account his busyness as a bishop, who had to regularly conduct long sessions of the episcopal court, take part in Councils, engage in church management and charity, solve numerous problems of the flock, etc. Thematically reaching A.'s works can be divided into 8 groups: autobiographical; philosophical and literary; apologetic; polemical; exegetical; dogmatic; moral and ascetic; pastoral.

Autobiographical writings and letters

The most famous work of this group is “Confessionum libri tredecim” (Confession, book 13; 397-400) - written by A. in response to the request of St. Pauline the Merciful, bishop. Nolansky, outline the history of his conversion. Books I-IX represent a spiritual autobiography unprecedented for that time in terms of the depth of personal self-expression, in which the story is combined with a deep analysis of the experience. Throughout the narrative, various problems are considered: knowledge of God (books VII and X), the composition and structure of memory (book X), the concept of matter (book XII), the creation of the world (with a detailed allegorical interpretation of the beginning of the book of Genesis) and the image of the Holy Trinity (Book XIII); in the book XI presents the original author's concept of time.

At the end of his life, A., summing up his writing activity, undertook a revision of his works in the work “Retractationum libri duo” (Revisions, in 2 books; 426-427), where he cataloged 93 of his creations (132 books), noting those judgments , which now seemed to him erroneous or careless (Book I covers the period from 386 to 396, Book II - from 396 to 426). This is a valuable source on the evolution of thought, dating and authenticity of A.

A.'s epistolary heritage contains letters of the most varied content (on theology, philosophy, polemics, exegesis, ecclesiology, liturgics, ethics, and other issues).

Philosophical and literary

This group includes the very first works of A., written in the period 386-391: “Contra Academicos” (Against the Academicians, in 3 books), “De vita beata” (On the blessed life), “De ordine” (On order, in 2 books), “Soliloquiorum libri duo” (Monologues, in 2 books), “De immortalitate animae” (On the immortality of the soul), “De quantitate animae” (On the quantity of the soul), “De magistro” (On teacher). In these writings, the strong influence of Neoplatonism, characteristic of early A., is noticeable: ideas about the pre-existence of the soul, about God as mental Light, about the superiority of the internal over the external, the spiritual over the physical, the unchangeable over the changeable, the simple over the complex, the one over the multiple, etc. To the majority A. remained faithful to these ideas until the end of his life. The works “Disciplinarum libri” (On the Sciences, 387, lost), “De grammatica” (On Grammar, 387, a fragment preserved) should be included in the same group. For the treatise “De musica” see section “A. about music."

Apologetic

The first work of this group is “De vera religione” (On the true religion, 389-391), where A. refutes the skepticism and polytheism of the pagan society and shows why Christianity should be considered the only true religion. 2 small essays “De utilitate credendi ad Honoratum” (On the benefits of faith to Honoratus, 391) and “De fide rerum invisibilium” (On faith in invisible things, 400) are devoted to justifying the need for faith for true knowledge, as well as the need to accept the church faith, and rejection of its heretical distortions (in particular, Manichaeism). But the most famous apology of A. is 22 books “De civitate Dei ad Marcellinum” (On the City of God, to Marcellinus, 413-426). The treatise was intended as a response to the pagans, who saw the reason for the destruction of Rome by Alaric (410) in the fact that Christ. God could not supposedly protect the Eternal City, preserved by Rome since ancient times. gods. The apology is divided into 2 parts: the actual apologetic (books I-X) and the doctrinal (books XI-XXII). Books I-V refute superstitious beliefs about pagan gods; in books VI-X there is a polemic with pagan philosophers about monotheism and polytheism, fortune telling and prophecies, angels and demons, etc. Further, A. develops his own historiosophical concept: history appears in A. as the forward movement of humanity, consisting of 2 cities-states. c: The city of God, which includes both angels, and the city of the devil, which unites people living according to their pride with fallen angels. “The two cities were created by two types of love: earthly - love for oneself up to the point of neglecting God, Heavenly - love for God up to the point of forgetting oneself” (XIV 28). The first representatives of the City of God and the city of the devil on earth are Abel and Cain. 6 successively changing periods of the historical life of mankind (from Adam to Noah, from the flood to Abraham, from Abraham to David, from David to the Babylonian captivity, from the captivity to the Coming of Christ, from Christ to the end of the world) are aimed at achieving the greatest possible moral perfection. Thus, the meaning of history is moral progress. The City of God on earth does not coincide with the visible boundaries of the earthly Church (the latter consists not only of true righteous people, but even the current enemies of the City of God can later convert and become its “citizens”). During “this age” (saeculum) the City of God and the city of the devil are completely indistinguishable and exist in confusion; they will be distinguished and separated only during the Last Judgment. With a general pessimistic view of real earthly states, which in the absence of justice, according to A. , are no different from gangs of robbers (IV 4), he nevertheless claims that all kingdoms, including the Roman Empire, are necessary and governed by the Providence of God (V 1; 12; 21), and with a virtuous person, especially Christ . the ruler brings great benefit to his subjects (V 3; 24-26), although the authority of the Church and the power of the state are completely incompatible things. In the treatise “Adversus Iudaeos” (Against the Jews, 428), A. proves the truth of the messiahship of Christ and condemns those who continue to observe Jewish customs.

Polemical

In op. “De haeresibus” (On heresies, 428-429) A. gives a brief description of 88 heresies, starting from Simon the Magus and ending with Pelagianism. Dr. the writings of this group are directed against certain heresies and schisms of the times of A.

Anti-Manichaean. In the earliest op. This group “De moribus Ecclesiae catholicae et de moribus manichaeorum” (On the morals of the Universal Church and the morals of the Manichaeans, in 2 books, 388) talks about the Church as a source of grace and holiness. In the works “De libero arbitrio” (On free decision, book I - 388, books II-III - 399) and “Contra Secundum manichaeum” (Against Secundum Manichaeus, 399) we are talking primarily about the fact that everything that exists is good already insofar as it exists, and evil is not something existing, it is non-substantial. In op. “De duabus animabus contra manichaeos” (On two souls against the Manichaeans, 392) A. proves that the souls of all people are the creations of the One God. “Disputatio contra Fortunatum” (Discourse against Fortunatum, 392) is a recording of A.’s two-day conversation with the Manichaean priest. Fortunatus. In op. “Contra Adimantum manichaei discipulum” (Against Adimantus, a disciple of the Manichaean, 394) we are talking about an allegorical understanding of the difficult passages of the Holy Scriptures. Scriptures. Op. "Contra epistulam quam vocant Fundamenti" (Against the Manichaean message called Fundamental, 397) is a refutation of Mani's fundamental dogmatic message to his followers. In op. “Contra Faustum manichaeum” (Against Faustus the Manichaean, in 33 books, 397-398) A. defends Christianity from the attacks of Faustus of Milevsky. A.'s dispute with the Manichaean Felix, reflected in Op. "Contra Felicem manichaeum" (Against Felix the Manichaean, 398), ended with the latter's conversion to Christianity. In op. “De natura boni contra manichaeos” (On the nature of good against the Manichaeans, 405) we are talking primarily about the non-substantiality of evil, the source of which lies in the free will of created beings.

Anti-Donatist. Foremost among them: "Psalmus contra partem Donati" (Psalm against the Donatist party, 393), an easy-to-remember tonic poem with a publicly accessible summary of the main arguments against the Donatists. In op. “Contra epistolam Parmeniani” (Objection to the Epistle of Parmenian, in 3 books, 400) A. speaks of the apostolic succession of the episcopate, the relative holiness of the members of the earthly Church and the independence of sacred rites from the personality of the priest. In op. “De baptizmo contra donatistas” (On baptism against the Donatists, in book 7, 400) A. criticizes the Donatist practice of rebaptizing heretics. In op. “Contra Cresconium grammaticum” (Against Cresconium Grammar, in 4 books, 406) he advocates the repressive measures of the imp. Honorius, adopted against the Donatists in 405. Finally, “Breviculus collationis cum donatistis” (Summary of the dispute with the Donatists) is an account of the dispute between the Orthodox. and by Donatist bishops at the Council of Carthage in 411. Op. “Contra litteras Petiliani” (Against the writings of Petilian, in 3 books, 401-405) and some others.

Anti-Pelagian. The most important of them include: “De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptizmo parvulorum ad Marcellinum” (On punishment and remission of sins, as well as on infant baptism, to Marcellinus, in 3 books, 411-412), where A. polemicizes with the Pelagian doctrine of the original sinlessness (impeccabilitas) of human nature and points to the custom of infant baptism, which clearly indicates the spread of Adam’s sin to all humanity as a whole; “De spiritu et littera ad Marcellinum” (On the spirit and the letter, to Marcellinus, 412), where A. disputes the Pelagian thesis about the fundamental possibility of the existence of sinless people; “De gestis Pelagii” (On the acts of Pelagius, 416), where A. first directed his criticism towards the heresiarch himself; “De gratia Christi et de peccato originale contra Pelagium et Coelestium” (On the grace of Christ and original sin against Pelagius and Celestius, in 2 books, 417), in which A. argues with Pelagius’ thesis that grace comes down to everything only to the natural free will of man and the gospel commandments. In 420-430 A. writes 4 essays against the bishop. Julian of Eclan, defender of the Pelagian heresy in Italy: “De nuptiis et concupiscentia ad Valerium” (On marriage and lust, to Valerius, in 2 books, 419-421), “Contra duas epistolas pelagianorum” (Against the two epistles of the Pelagians, in 4 book), written to Pope Boniface I in 420, “Contra Julianum pelagianum” (Against Julian the Pelagian, in 4 books, 421) and the unfinished op. against him (“Contra secundam Juliani responsionem, opus imperfectum”, in 6 books, 429). The work “De anima et ejus origine” (On the soul and its origin, in 4 books, ca. 421) dates back to the same period. In 426-427 A. wrote 2 essays on the action of Divine grace: “De gratia et libero arbitrio ad Valentinum” (On grace and free decision, to Valentinus) and “De correptione et gratia ad Valentinum” (On reproach and grace, to Valentinus). Finally, in the last 2 (428-429) works, “De praedestinatione sanctorum ad Prosperum et Hilarium” (On the predestination of the saints, to Prosper and Hilary) and “De dono perseverantiae” (On the gift of perseverance [in good]), with all the brightness late A. ideas about the relationship between Divine predestination and free will emerged (see section “Christology and Soteriology”).

Other. First Anti-Arian Op. A. - “Contra sermonem arianorum” (Against the preaching of the Arians, 418-419). In 428, “Collatio cum Maximino” (a brief account of the dispute with the Arian bishop Maximin) and “Contra Maximinum” (Against Maximin) were written. The treatise “Contra adversarium legis et prophetarum” (Against the enemy of the Law and the Prophets, in 2 books, 421) is devoted to the polemic with the Marcionites.

Exegetical

Methods of interpretation of the Holy. The Scriptures are summarized by A. in the Great Op. “De doctrina christiana” (On Christian teaching, in 4 books, up to chapter 25 of book III - 396-397, completed in 426-427). Exegesis, according to A., is called upon to kindle in people faith, hope and love for God and neighbor. If letters understanding of k.-l. passage of Scripture does not provide the opportunity for moral edification, then such a narrative must be considered a “figurative sign,” that is, interpreted allegorically. The main sources of Augustine's exegetical theory are New Testament exegesis (primarily Apostle Paul), interpretations of St. Ambrose and St. Hilary of Pictavius, the exegetical rules of the Donatist Tychonius, as well as the Stoic theory of the sign, which A. supplemented with the idea of ​​​​the recipient (perceiving subject) of the sign as a necessary component of its functioning. The treatise contains an overview of what is necessary for Christ. exegete of scientific and humanitarian knowledge and the main rules for “presenting” a sermon (rhetorical-stylistic requirements). From the comments on the OT, it should be noted the most detailed philosophical and theological analysis of the first 3 chapters of the book. Genesis in 12 books "De Genesi ad litteram" (On the book of Genesis literally, 401-415; the unfinished book of the same name, "De Genesi ad litteram imperfectus liber", appeared earlier, in 393-394). Enarrationes in Psalmos (Commentaries on Selected Psalms) are records of sermons from 394-418. In 419, 7 books of interpretations on the Old Testament Septateuchum (In Heptateuchum) were compiled. From the commentaries on the NT, one should point out 4 books “De consensu Evangelistarum” (On the agreement of the Evangelists, 400), where A. examines the features of each Gospel, and also reconstructs the Gospel history based on all 4 Gospels; until recently, this work was one of the main guides to Catholic exegesis. West. In 407-417 a detailed commentary on the Gospel of John was written - “Tractatus in Iohannis Evangelium” (124 discussions on the Gospel of John). In 393-396. A. wrote 2 comments on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Romans - "Expositio quarumdam propositionum ex epistola ad Romanos" (Exposition of some provisions from the Epistle to the Romans) and "Expositio inchoata epistolae ad Romanos" (Preliminary exposition of the Epistle to the Romans), as well as "Expositio epistolae ad Galatas" (Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans) Galatians). In 407-416 Tractatus in Epistolam Iohannis ad Parthos was compiled in 10 books (Discourses on the Epistle of John to the Parthians). In 427 A. wrote op. "Speculum" (Mirror), representing a collection of moral teachings from the Bible. This op. belongs to A. is sometimes disputed, but it appears in the list of his works compiled by Possidius; on Wednesday. century, this work enjoyed great popularity, it was also known in Rus' (translated into Slavic).

Dogmatic

General presentation of Christ. creeds can be found in op. “De fide et symbolo” (On faith and symbol, 393) and “De agone christiano” (On Christian struggle, 396-397), where we also talk about the Providence of God and the need to resist the power of the tempter. The most extensive statement of faith with detailed discussions of grace and double predestination is found in op. “Enchiridion ad Laurentium seu de fide, spe et caritate” (Enchiridion to Laurentius, or On Faith, Hope and Love, 421). Various dogmatic issues are dealt with in op. "De diversis quaestionibus LXXXIII" (On 83 different issues, 389-396). Op. of the same name, addressed to Simplician, bishop. Milan, - “De diversis quaestionibus ad Simplicianum” - was written in 396. Finally, in the most significant dogmatic op. “De Trinitate” (On the Trinity, in 15 books, 400-415), in addition to triadology, A. examines many other issues: the essence and properties of God, Christology, knowledge of God, etc.

Moral-ascetic

Most of the works of this group are dedicated to individual Christians. virtues: “On abstinence” (De continentia, 394-395), “Against lies” (Contra mendacium, 420), “On patience” (De patientia, 418). A. preaches the ideals of virginity and widowhood in the works “On Holy Virginity” (De sancta virginitate, 400-401), “On the Good of Widowhood, to Juliana” (De bono viduitatis ad Julianam, 414). The treatise “On Monastic Labor” (De opere monachorum, 400) is dedicated to the praise of asceticism.

Pastoral

This group includes op. “De catechizandis rudibus” (On the teaching of the catechumens, 400) and 396 sermons (sermones) of various contents: for individual places of the Holy. Scriptures, church holidays, in memory of saints, etc.

A.'s language and style varies greatly in his different works: from strict and in some places several. the ponderous classical Latin of theological treatises to the simple and artless style and almost folk language of oral sermons addressed to a simple listener. Writing and oratory skills allowed A. to comprehensively and deeply describe the subject of his thought, find a convenient trope and develop it into a vivid allegorical picture, mint apt, memorable phrases. Like other lat. Christ authors of the 3rd-5th centuries, A. contributed to the introduction of “Christian Latin” to the achievements of classical literature; it is this synthesis that follows. Lat helped. language to become a flexible tool of the Middle Ages. philosophy and theology.

S. A. Stepantsov, A. R. Fokin

Teaching

E.N.I.

Works: Collection: Editio Benedectina. T. 1-11. P., 1679-1700; P.L. 32-47; CSEL; CCSL; Cayré F. Bibliothèque Augustienienne: Oeuvres de S. Augustin. P., 1947-2 [text, French. lane and comment]; Obras completas de San Agustín. Madrid, 1946-. (Biblioteca de autores cristianos) [text, Spanish. transl.]; Opere di Sant "Agostino. R., 1970-. (Nuova biblioteca agostiniana) [text, Italian translation]; BKV. Kempten, 1911-1935. 12 Bde. [German translation]; ACW [English translation. ]; Russian translation: Translation by I. Todorsky, M., 1786. Selected passages from the books of Blessed Augustine about the Orthodox Catholic Church and those who care about it. . S. Todorsky. St. Petersburg, 1795; Works of Blessed Augustine, Bishop of Ipponia. 11 hours; Parts 1-8; St. Petersburg, 1997; / Compiled and prepared by S. I. St. Petersburg, 1998. T. 1-2; Confessiones (CPL, No. 32); ed. L. Verheijen, 1981); Translation from lat. Agapit (Skvortsova). Confession / Translated by M. E. Sergeenko // BT. 19. P. 71-264; Prepared by A. A. Stolyarov, 1991, 19972; L. Rabinovich. M., 1992 (incl. Peter Abelar. The story of my disasters); The same [excerpts] / Translated by T. A. Miller // PSLL, IV-VII centuries. pp. 152-169; Retractationes (CPL, N 250) // PL. 32; CSEL. 36 (ed. P. Knoell, 1902); CCSL. 57 (ed. A. Mutzenbecher, 1984); Epistulae (CPL, N 262) // PL. 33; CSEL. 34/1-2, 44, 57, 58 (ed. A. Goldbacher, 1895-1923); Letter CCLVIII (to Marcian) / Trans. and comment. S. Stepantsova // Theological collection. / PSTBI. 1999. No. 4. P. 124-128; philos.: Contra Academicos (CPL, N 253) // PL. 32; CSEL. 63; CCSL. 29 (ed. W. M. Green, 1970). P. 3-61; Against academicians // Creations. Part 2. P. 1-104 (republished: Enchiridion, or About faith, hope and love / Compiled by S. I. Eremeev. K., 1996. P. 5-73); Against academicians / Transl. and comment. O. V. Head. M., 1999 [lat. text, trans.]; De beata vita (CPL, N 254) // PL. 32; CSEL. 63; CCSL. 29 (ed. W. M. Green, 1970). P. 65-85; About the blessed life // Creations. Part 2. pp. 105-138 (republished: Enchiridion... pp. 74-97); De immortalitate animae (CPL, N 256) // PL. 32. Col. 1021-1034; CSEL. 89 (ed. W. Hörmann, 1986). P. 101-128; About the immortality of the soul // Creations. Part 2. pp. 299-418 (republished: Enchiridion... pp. 208-225); De magistro (CPL, N 259) // PL. 32; CSEL. 77 (ed. G. Weigel, 1961); CCSL. 29 (ed. K.-D. Daur, 1970). P. 157-203; About the teacher // Creations. Part 2. pp. 419-473; About the teacher / Transl. V.V. Bibikhina // PSLL, IV-VII centuries. pp. 170-204; De ordine (CPL, N 255) // PL. 32; CSEL. 63; CCSL. 29 (ed. W. M. Green, 1970). P. 89-137; About order // Creations. Part 2. pp. 139-226 (republished: Enchiridion... pp. 98-156); Soliloquia (CPL, N 252) // PL. 32. Col. 869-904; CSEL. 89 (ed. W. Hörmann, 1986). P. 3-98; The path to knowledge of the properties of divine and human, or Solitary discourse with God / Transl. S. Kozlovsky. M., 1783; Single conversation of the soul with God / Trans. V. Belyaeva. M., 1783; Monologues // Creations. Part 2. pp. 227-298 (republished: Enchiridion... pp. 157-207); music theory: De musica (CPL, N 258) // PL. 32. Col. 1081-1194; Aurelius Augustinus. Music/Hrsg. C. Perl. Paderborn, 1936 [from German. transl.]; La musique/Ed. et transl. G. Finaert, F.-J. Thonnard. P., 1947 [from French transl.]; polemical apologist .: Contra adversarium legis et prophetarum (CPL, N 326) // PL. 42; CCSL. 52 (ed. K.-D. Baur, 1985). P. 35-131; Against the subverters of the Law and the Prophets [neg.] / Trans. O. E. Nesterova // PSLL, IV-VII centuries. pp. 206-207; Contra epistulam Manichaei quam vocant fundamenti (CPL, N 320) // PL. 42; CSEL. 25 (ed. J. Zycha, 1891). P. 193-248, Against the message of the Manichaean named Foundation [neg.] / Trans. O. E. Nesterova // PSLL, IV-VII centuries. pp. 207-208; Contra Gaudentium (CPL, N 341) // PL. 43; CSEL. 53 (ed. M. Petschenig, 1910). P. 201-274; Contra Iulianum pelagianum (CPL, N 351) // PL. 44. P. 641-874; Contra litteras Petiliani (CPL, N 333) // PL. 43; CSEL. 52 (ed. M. Petschenig, 1909). P. 3-227; CCSL. 52; Contra Maximinum (CPL, N 700) // PL. 42. P. 743-814; De baptismo (CPL, N 332) // PL. 43; CSEL. 51 (ed. M. Petschenig, 1908). P. 145-375; De civitate Dei (CPL, N 313) // PL. 41; CSEL. 40/1-2 (ed. E. Hoffmann, 1899-1900); CCSL. 47-48 (ed. B. Dombart, A. Kalb, 1955); Creations. Parts 3-6; About the city of God. K., 1906-1910. M., 1994. T. 1-4; De duabus animabus (CPL, N 317) // PL. 42; CSEL. 25 (ed. J. Zycha, 1891). P. 51-80; De gestis Pelagii (CPL, N 348) // PL. 44; CSEL. 42 (ed. C. F. Urba, J. Zycha, 1902). P. 51-122; De Gratia Christi et de peccato originali (CPL, N 349) // PL. 44; CSEL. 42 (ed. C. F. Urba, J. Zycha, 1902). P. 125-106; De Gratia et libero arbitrio (CPL, N 352) // PL. 44. Col. 851-912; Theological reflections on the grace of God and the will of man for the benefit of Christians who want to be saved and come into the mind of truth. St. Petersburg, 1786; About grace and free will / Transl. O. E. Nesterova // Guseinov A. A ., Irrlitz G . A Brief History of Ethics. M., 1987. P. 532-557 (add.); De haeresibus (CPL, N 314) // PL. 42. Col. 21-50; CCSL. 46 (ed. R. Vander Plaetse, C. Beukers, 1969). P. 286-345; De libero arbitrio (CPL, N 260) // PL. 32; CSEL. 74 (ed. W. M. Green, 1956); CCSL. 29 (ed. W. M. Green, 1970). P. 211-321; De moribus ecclesiae catholicae et de moribus manichaeorum (CPL, N 261) // PL. 32. P. 1309-1378; CSEL. 90; De natura boni (CPL, N 323) // PL. 42; CSEL. 25 (ed. J. Zycha, 1891). P. 855-899; On the nature of good against the Manichaeans [excerpts] / Trans. O. E. Nesterova // PSLL, IV-VII centuries. pp. 204-206; De natura et Gratia (CPL, N 344) // PL. 44; CSEL. 60 (ed. C. F. Urba, J. Zycha, 1913). P. 232-299; De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum (CPL, N 342) // PL. 44; CSEL. 60 (ed. C. F. Urba, J. Zycha, 1913). P. 3-151; De praedestinatione sanctorum (CPL, N 354) // PL. 44. Col. 959-992; On the Predestination of the Saints: First Book to Prosper and Hilary / Trans. I. Mamsurova. M., 2000; De spiritu et littera (CPL, N 343) // PL. 44; CSEL. 60 (ed. C. F. Urba, J. Zycha, 1913). P. 155-229; About spirit and writing / Trans. N. Zagorovsky. M., 1787; De utilitate credendi (CPL, N 316) // PL. 42; CSEL. 25 (ed. J. Zycha, 1891). P. 3-48; De vera religione (CPL, N 264) // PL. 34; CSEL. 77 (ed. W. M. Green, 1961); CCSL. 32 (ed. K.-D. Daur, 1962). P. 187-260; About true religion // Creations. Part 7. pp. 1-95; M., 1997. (B-ka Fathers and Teachers of the Church; 5); (reprint: Enchiridion... S. 226-289); Psalmus contra partem Donati (CPL, N 330) // PL. 43. Col. 23-32; CSEL. 51. P. 3-15; Psalmus contra partem Donati / Introd., testo critico, trad. e note a cura di R. Anastasi. Padova, 1957 [from Italian. transl.]; exegete .: De consensu Evangelistarum (CPL, N 273) // PL. 34; CSEL. 43 (ed. F. Weihrich); On the agreement of the Evangelists: Book. I-IV // Creations. Part 10; De doctrina christiana (CPL, N 263) // PL. 34; CCSL. 32 (ed. J. Martin, 1962). P. 1-167; CSEL. 80 (ed. W. M. Green, 1963); Christian Science, or Foundations of Sacred Hermeneutics and Ecclesiastical Eloquence. K., 1835; De Genesi ad litteram (CPL, N 266) // PL. 34; CSEL. 28/1 (ed. J. Zycha, 1894). P. 3-435; About the book of Genesis // Creations. Part 7. pp. 142-278. Part 8; M., 1997. (B-ka Fathers and Teachers of the Church; 5); De Genesi ad litteram imperf. (CPL, N 268) // PL. 34; CSEL. 28/1 (ed. J. Zycha, 1894). P. 459-503; Creations. Part 7. pp. 96-141; M., 1997. (B-ka Fathers and Teachers of the Church; 5); De octo quaestionibus ex Veteri Testamento (CPL, N 277) // CCSL. 33 (ed. D. de Bruyne, 1958). P. 469-472; De sermone Domini in monte (CPL, N 274) // PL. 34; CCSL. 35 (ed. A. Mutzenbecher, 1967); About the Lord's Prayer / Transl. M. E. Kozlova // Trinity Word. Serg. P., 1990. No. 5. P. 3-6; Enarrationes in Psalmos (CPL, N 283) // PL. 36-37; CCSL. 38-40 (ed. E. Dekkers, J. Fraipont, 1956); Interpretation of Psalm 125 / Trans. and comment. S. Stepantsova // Alpha and Omega. 1997. No. 2 (13). pp. 52-75; Expositio quarundam propositionum ex epistola ad Romanos (CPL, N 280) // PL. 35; CSEL. 84 (ed. E. Divjak, 1971). P. 3-52; In Iohannis Epistulam ad Parthos tractatus (CPL, N 279) // PL. 35; S.C. 75 (ed. W. J. Mountain); In Iohannis Evangelium tractatus (CPL, N 278) // PL. 35; CCSL. 36 (ed. R. Willems, 1954); Locutiones et Quaestiones in Heptateuchum (CPL, N 269-270) // PL. 34; CSEL. 28/1-2; CCSL. 33 (ed. J. Fraipont, 1958). P. 381-465; 1-377; Speculum (CPL, N 272) // PL. 34; CSEL. 12 (ed. F. Weihrich, 1887). P. 3-285; Mirror, from all Holy Scripture... / Trans. N. Malinina. M., 1783; The same / Transl. I. S. Todorsky. St. Petersburg, 1787, 1795; Creations. Part 9. pp. 1-245; dogma and morals.-ascetic: De agone christiano (CPL, N 296) // PL. 40; CSEL. 41 (ed. J. Zycha, 1900). P. 101-138; About the feat of a Christian, containing the rule of faith and instructions for life / Transl. I. S. Todorsky. St. Petersburg, 1787; De bono coniugali (CPL, N 299) // PL. 40; CSEL. 41 (ed. J. Zycha, 1900). P. 187-230; De diversis quaestionibus LXXXIII (CPL, N 289) // PL. 40; CSEL. 44a (ed. A. Mutzenbecher, 1975). P. 11-249; De diversis quaestionibus ad Simplicianum (CPL, N 290) // PL. 40; CSEL. 44 (ed. A. Mutzenbecher, 1970); De octo Dulcitii quaestionibus (CPL, N 291) // PL. 40; CCSL. 44a (ed. A. Mutzenbecher, 1975). P. 253-297; De opere monachorum (CPL, N 266) // PL. 40; CSEL. 41 (ed. J. Zycha, 1900). P. 531-595; De sancta virginitate (CPL, N 300) // PL. 40; CSEL. 41 (ed. J. Zycha, 1900). P. 235-302; De Trinitate (CPL, N 329) // PL. 42; CCSL. 50-50a (ed. W. J. Mountain, 1968); About the Trinity. Book 1 // BT. 1989. 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